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上古卷轴5：天际-龙裔DLC隐藏任务图文攻略
& 第1页:召唤巨人karstaag1& & 第2页:召唤巨人karstaag2& & 第3页:召唤巨人karstaag3& & 第4页:召唤巨人karstaag4& & 第5页:召唤巨人karstaag5& & 第6页:召唤巨人karstaag6& & 第7页:召唤巨人karstaag7& & 第8页:召唤巨人karstaag8& & 第9页:召唤巨人karstaag9& & 第10页:神出鬼没的NPC&
　　召唤巨人karstaag
　　这个任务在任务日志中没有显示，但是，却是一个完整的任务。
　　首先来到glacial 山洞，
　　这是一个冰雪山洞
　　前面的营地会出现3个地精
　　和队友们把其全部干掉
　　会发现karstaag的头骨在墙壁上
　　拿下来，就是这种东西(一种类人的巨人种族的头骨)
... & 第页
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今日关注游戏上古卷轴5龙裔隐藏任务汇总及打法讲解
上古卷轴5 龙裔隐藏任务汇总及打法讲解，中的隐藏任务不是所有都发现的了的，很多玩家发现不了这些，更别说是完成了，下面是对上古卷轴5龙裔隐藏任务的汇总并讲解了打法。今天小编要带来的是关于上古卷轴5龙裔隐藏任务攻略图文介绍。在游戏上古卷轴5龙裔DLC中，由玩家们口口相传的隐藏任务，但是很少有人发现并完成了这些任务，下面小编就为大家来介绍下上古卷轴5龙裔DLC隐藏任务全流程，玩家们可以照着攻略尝试一下！上古卷轴5召唤巨人karstaag任务： 这个任务在任务日志中没有显示，但是，却是一个完整的任务。首先来到glacial 山洞，这是一个冰雪山洞。前面的营地会出现3个地精。和队友们把其全部干掉。会发现karstaag的头骨在墙壁上，拿下来。就是上图这种东西(一种类人的巨人种族的头骨)。来到karstaag城堡洞穴(就是给乌鸦岩的铁匠找到骨灰锻造配方的那个山洞)。也是个冰雪山洞，被地精们占据着，洞口不远处就是骨灰锻造配方目标，索尸体得到配方。不知道巨人karstaag任务的，一般就原路返回了，因为没有什么特殊的东西和宝藏，但是为了巨人karstaag，继续前进，余下的路程可就是任重道远了，路途很长。向前走，杀死桥头的矮子。往前走，再灭掉几个矮子。顺路一次穿过2个冰门。来到一处有桥的土匪营地，杀死众地精。沿路走到饲养场。把野猪骑士和地精都干掉。总之吧，简述，一路前行，杀死路上敌人 都是些地精，好解决，注意收集宝箱。最后来到了karstaag山谷庭院，进入。一见面，2个地精和一个骑士会&欢迎你&。杀死之后，主要战斗来临！做好准备，走到王座近前，上面是他的遗骸(除了头骨之外)。按E放上头骨，karstaag的鬼魂复活！战斗开始！本来以为又是个秋风扫落叶的三下五除二战斗，此时，是 传奇 级难度，我60级，装备是头部多次打磨后的双重附魔的雪精灵头盔，和艾色瑞姆王冠(君王石+元素石)，多次打磨的乌木链甲，多次打磨的双重附魔的护手和靴子，武器是乌木刃和多次打磨的龙祸和哈孔之刃，技能是重甲、单手、召唤等全满，没有任何控制台，手动升级。结果没成想&&&&我先来一个诺德战嚎，来吓跑敌人，结果意外的无效，反被一个龙吼吹得很远，查控制台才知道，90级，自带冰霜斗篷，而且各种抗，抗冰，抗战嚎，抗多数龙吼、抗击晕&&&&看清了确实是一个身材高大的巨人，实力巨强。瞬时间，也是三两棒吧，平时很威猛的两个法师奴仆马上倒地。未完待续
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授权：免费From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
in northern . At 62 kilometres (39 mi) in length, it is one of the longest alpine glaciers on earth.
in western , Argentina
The , the largest glacier of the , in Switzerland
is the largest glaciated area in the , in Peru
A glacier (:
or : ) is a persistent body of dense
that is constantly moving
it forms where the accumulation of
exceeds its
(melting and ) over many years, often . Glaciers slowly deform and flow due to stresses induced by their weight, creating , , and other distinguishing features. They also abrade rock and debris from their substrate to create landforms such as
and . Glaciers form only on land and are distinct from the much thinner
and lake ice that form on the surface of bodies of water.
On , 99% of glacial ice is contained within vast
(also known as "continental glaciers") in the , but glaciers may be found in
including Oceania's high-latitude
such as New Zealand and Papua New Guinea. Between 35°N and 35°S, glaciers occur only in the , , , a few high mountains in , ,
in Iran. Glaciers cover about 10 percent of Earth's land surface. Continental glaciers cover nearly 13,000,000 km2 (5×106 sq mi) or about 98 percent of Antarctica's 13,200,000 km2 (5.1×106 sq mi), with an average thickness of 2,100 m (7,000 ft).
also have huge expanses of continental glaciers.
Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of
on Earth. Many glaciers from temperate, alpine and seasonal polar climates store water as ice during the colder seasons and release it later in the form of
as warmer summer temperatures cause the glacier to melt, creating a
that is especially important for plants, animals and human uses when other sources may be scant. Within high-altitude and Antarctic environments, the seasonal temperature difference is often not sufficient to release meltwater.
Because glacial mass is affected by long-term
changes, e.g., , , and ,
are considered among the most sensitive indicators of
and are a major source of variations in .
A large piece of compressed ice, or a glacier, , as large quantities of . This is because water molecules absorb other colors more efficiently than blue. The other reason for the blue color of glaciers is the lack of air bubbles. Air bubbles, which give a white color to ice, are squeezed out by pressure increasing the density of the created ice.
The word glacier is a
and goes back, via , to the
glaciārium, derived from the
glacia, and ultimately
glaciēs, meaning "ice". The processes and features caused by or related to glaciers are referred to as glacial. The process of glacier establishment, growth and flow is called . The corresponding area of study is called . Glaciers are important components of the global .
Mouth of the
near , Austria
Glaciers are categorized by their morphology, thermal characteristics, and behavior.
glaciers form on the crests and slopes of . A glacier that fills a valley is called a valley glacier, or alternatively an alpine glacier or mountain glacier. A large body of glacial ice astride a mountain, , or
is termed an
or . Ice caps have an area less than 50,000 km2 (19,000 sq mi) by definition.
Glacial bodies larger than 50,000 km2 (19,000 sq mi) are called
or continental glaciers. Several kilometers deep, they obscure the underlying topography. Only
protrude from their surfaces. The only extant ice sheets are the two that cover most of
and . They contain vast quantities of fresh water, enough that if both melted, global sea levels would rise by over 70 m (230 ft). Portions of an ice sheet or cap that extend in they tend to be thin with limited slopes and reduced . Narrow, fast-moving sections of an ice sheet are called . In Antarctica, many ice streams drain into large . Some drain directly into the sea, often with an , like .
The Grotta del Gelo is a cave of
, the southernmost glacier in
Sightseeing boat in front of a tidewater glacier, , Alaska
Tidewater glaciers are glaciers that terminate in the sea, including most glaciers flowing from Greenland, Antarctica,
in Canada, , and the
and . As the ice reaches the sea, pieces break off, or calve, forming . Most tidewater glaciers calve above sea level, which often results in a tremendous impact as the iceberg strikes the water. Tidewater glaciers undergo centuries-long
that are much less affected by the climate change than those of other glaciers.
Thermally, a temperate glacier is at melting point throughout the year, from its surface to its base. The ice of a polar glacier is always below the freezing point from the surface to its base, although the surface snowpack may experience seasonal melting. A sub-polar glacier includes both temperate and polar ice, depending on depth beneath the surface and position along the length of the glacier. In a similar way, the thermal regime of a glacier is often described by its basal temperature. A cold-based glacier is below freezing at the ice-ground interface, and is thus frozen to the underlying substrate. A warm-based glacier is above or at freezing at the interface, and is able to slide at this contact. This contrast is thought to a large extent to govern the ability of a glacier to effectively , as sliding ice promotes
at rock from the surface below. Glaciers which are partly cold-based and partly warm-based are known as polythermal.
in Switzerland
Glaciers form where the
of snow and ice exceeds . A glacier usually originates from a landform called '' (or corrie or cwm) – a typically armchair-shaped geological feature (such as a depression between mountains enclosed by arêtes) – which collects and compresses through gravity the snow that falls into it. This snow collects and is compacted by the weight of the snow falling above it, forming . Further crushing of the individual snowflakes and squeezing the air from the snow turns it into "glacial ice". This glacial ice will fill the cirque until it "overflows" through a geological weakness or vacancy, such as the gap between two mountains. When the mass of snow and ice is sufficiently thick, it begins to move due to a combination of surface slope, gravity and pressure. On steeper slopes, this can occur with as little as 15 m (50 ft) of snow-ice.
passes a wall of freshly exposed blue ice on Spencer Glacier, in Alaska. Glacial ice acts like a filter on light, and the more time light can spend traveling through ice, the bluer it becomes.
In temperate glaciers, snow repeatedly freezes and thaws, changing into granular ice called . Under the pressure of the layers of ice and snow above it, this granular ice fuses into denser and denser . Over a period of years, layers of firn undergo further compaction and become glacial ice. Glacier ice is slightly less dense than ice formed from frozen water because it contains tiny trapped air bubbles.
Glacial ice has a distinctive
tint because it absorbs some red light due to an
of the infrared
mode of the water molecule. Liquid
is blue for the same reason. The blue of glacier ice is sometimes misattributed to
due to bubbles in the ice.
located on the
in Argentina
A glacier originates at a location called its glacier head and terminates at its glacier foot, snout, or .
Glaciers are broken into zones based on surface snowpack and melt conditions. The ablation zone is the region where there is a net loss in glacier mass. The equilibrium line separates the ab it is the altitude where the amount of new snow gained by accumulation is equal to the amount of ice lost through ablation. The upper part of a glacier, where accumulation exceeds ablation, is called the . In general, the accumulation zone accounts for 60–70% of the glacier's surface area, more if the glacier calves icebergs. Ice in the accumulation zone is deep enough to exert a downward force that erodes underlying rock. After a glacier melts, it often leaves behind a bowl- or amphitheater-shaped depression that ranges in size from large basins like the Great Lakes to smaller mountain depressions known as .
The accumulation zone can be subdivided based on its melt conditions.
The dry snow zone is a region where no melt occurs, even in the summer, and the snowpack remains dry.
The percolation zone is an area with some surface melt, causing
to percolate into the . This zone is often marked by refrozen , glands, and layers. The snowpack also never reaches melting point.
Near the equilibrium line on some glaciers, a superimposed ice zone develops. This zone is where meltwater refreezes as a cold layer in the glacier, forming a continuous mass of ice.
The wet snow zone is the region where all of the snow deposited since the end of the previous summer has been raised to 0 °C.
The health of a glacier is usually assessed by determining the
or observing terminus behavior. Healthy glaciers have large accumulation zones, more than 60% of their area snowcovered at the end of the melt season, and a terminus with vigorous flow.
Following the 's end around 1850, . A slight cooling led to the advance of many alpine glaciers between 1950 and 1985, but since 1985 glacier retreat and mass loss has become larger and increasingly ubiquitous.
Shear or herring-bone crevasses on
(); such crevasses often form near the edge of a glacier where interactions with underlying or marginal rock impede flow. In this case, the impediment appears to be some distance from the near margin of the glacier.
Glaciers move, or flow, downhill due to
and the internal deformation of ice. Ice behaves like a brittle solid until its thickness exceeds about 50 m (160 ft). The pressure on ice deeper than 50 m causes . At the molecular level, ice consists of stacked layers of molecules with relatively weak bonds between layers. When the stress on the layer above exceeds the inter-layer binding strength, it moves faster than the layer below.
Glaciers also move through . In this process, a glacier slides over the terrain on which it sits,
by the presence of liquid water. The water is created from ice that melts under high pressure from frictional heating. Basal sliding is dominant in temperate, or warm-based glaciers.
Although evidence in favour of glacial flow was known by the early 19th century, other theories of glacial motion were advanced, such as the idea that melt water, refreezing inside glaciers, caused the glacier to dilate and extend its length. As it became clear that glaciers behaved to some degree as if the ice were a viscous fluid, it was argued that "regelation", or the melting and refreezing of ice at a temperature lowered by the pressure on the ice inside the glacier, was what allowed the ice to deform and flow.
came up with the essentially correct explanation in the 1840s, although it was several decades before it was fully accepted.
Perito Moreno glacier
Ice cracks in the
The top 50 m (160 ft) of a glacier are rigid because they are under low pressure. This upper section is known as the fracture zone and moves mostly as a single unit over the plastically flowing lower section. When a glacier moves through irregular terrain, cracks called
develop in the fracture zone. Crevasses form due to differences in glacier velocity. If two rigid sections of a glacier move at different speeds and directions,
forces cause them to break apart, opening a crevasse. Crevasses are seldom more than 46 m (150 ft) deep but in some cases can be 300 m (1,000 ft) or even deeper. Beneath this point, the plasticity of the ice is too great for cracks to form. Intersecting crevasses can create isolated peaks in the ice, called .
Crevasses can form in several different ways. Transverse crevasses are transverse to flow and form where steeper slopes cause a glacier to accelerate. Longitudinal crevasses form semi-parallel to flow where a glacier expands laterally. Marginal crevasses form from the edge of the glacier, due to the reduction in speed caused by friction of the valley walls. Marginal crevasses are usually largely transverse to flow. Moving glacier ice can sometimes separate from stagnant ice above, forming a . Bergschrunds resemble crevasses but are singular features at a glacier's margins.
Crevasses make travel over glaciers hazardous, especially when they are hidden by fragile .
Crossing a crevasse on the , , in the , United States
Below the equilibrium line, glacial meltwater is concentrated in stream channels. Meltwater can pool in proglacial lakes on top of a glacier or descend into the depths of a glacier via . Streams within or beneath a glacier flow in englacial or sub-glacial tunnels. These tunnels sometimes reemerge at the glacier's surface.
The speed of glacial displacement is partly determined by . Friction makes the ice at the bottom of the glacier move more slowly than ice at the top. In alpine glaciers, friction is also generated at the valley's side walls, which slows the edges relative to the center.
Mean speeds vary greatly, but is typically around 1 m (3 ft) per day. There may be no moti for example, in parts of , trees can establish themselves on surface sediment deposits. In other cases, glaciers can move as fast as 20–30 m (70–100 ft) per day, such as in Greenland's
(: Sermeq Kujalleq). Velocity increases with increasing slope, increasing thickness, increasing snowfall, increasing longitudinal confinement, increasing basal temperature, increasing meltwater production and reduced bed hardness.
A few glaciers have periods of very rapid advancement called . These glaciers exhibit normal movement until suddenly they accelerate, then return to their previous state. During these surges, the glacier may reach velocities far greater than normal speed. These surges may be caused by failure of the underlying bedrock, the pooling of meltwater at the base of the glacier — perhaps delivered from a  — or the simple accumulation of mass beyond a critical "tipping point". Temporary rates up to 90 m (300 ft) per day have occurred when increased temperature or overlying pressure caused bottom ice to melt and water to accumulate beneath a glacier.
In glaciated areas where the glacier moves faster than one km per year,
occur. These are large scale
that have seismic magnitudes as high as 6.1. The number of glacial earthquakes in
peaks every year in July, August and September and is increasing over time. In a study using data from January 1993 through October 2005, more events were detected every year since 2002, and twice as many events were recorded in 2005 as there were in any other year. This increase in the numbers of glacial earthquakes in Greenland may be a response to .
Ogives are alternating wave crests and valleys that appear as dark and light bands of ice on glacier surfaces. They are linked to seasona the width of one dark and one light band generally equals the annual movement of the glacier. Ogives are formed when ice from an icefall is severely broken up, increasing ablation surface area during summer. This creates a
and space for snow accumulation in the winter, which in turn creates a ridge. Sometimes ogives consist only of undulations or color bands and are described as wave ogives or band ogives.
Black ice glacier near , Argentina
Glaciers are present on every continent and approximately fifty countries, excluding those (Australia, South Africa) that have glaciers only on distant
island territories. Extensive glaciers are found in , Chile, Canada, ,
and . Mountain glaciers are widespread, especially in the , the , the , the ,
and the . Mainland Australia currently contains no glaciers, although a small glacier on
was present in the . In , small, rapidly diminishing, glaciers are located on its highest summit massif of . Africa has glaciers on
and in the . Oceanic islands with glaciers include Iceland, several of the islands off the coast of Norway including
to the far North,
and the subantarctic islands of , ,
and . During glacial periods of the Quaternary, ,
also had large alpine glaciers, while the
were completely glaciated.
The permanent snow cover necessary for glacier formation is affected by factors such as the degree of
on the land, amount of snowfall and the . Glaciers can be found in all
except from 20° to 27° north and south of the equator where the presence of the descending limb of the
lowers precipitation so much that with high
reach above 6,500 m (21,330 ft). Between 19?N and 19?S, however, precipitation is higher and the mountains above 5,000 m (16,400 ft) usually have permanent snow.
Even at high latitudes, glacier formation is not inevitable. Areas of the , such as , and the
in Antarctica are considered
where glaciers cannot form because they receive little snowfall despite the bitter cold. Cold air, unlike warm air, is unable to transport much water vapor. Even during glacial periods of the , , lowland , and
and , though extraordinarily cold, had such light snowfall that glaciers could not form.
In addition to the dry, unglaciated polar regions, some mountains and volcanoes in Bolivia, Chile and Argentina are high (4,500 to 6,900 m or 14,800 to 22,600 ft) and cold, but the relative lack of precipitation prevents snow from accumulating into glaciers. This is because these peaks are located near or in the
Diagram of glacial plucking and abrasion
Glacially plucked granitic bedrock near Mariehamn,
Glaciers erode terrain through two principal processes:
As glaciers flow over bedrock, they soften and lift blocks of rock into the ice. This process, called plucking, is caused by subglacial water that penetrates fractures in the bedrock and subsequently freezes and expands. This expansion causes the ice to act as a lever that loosens the rock by lifting it. Thus, sediments of all sizes become part of the glacier's load. If a retreating glacier gains enough debris, it may become a , like the
Abrasion occurs when the ice and its load of rock fragments slide over bedrock and function as sandpaper, smoothing and polishing the bedrock below. The pulverized rock this process produces is called
and is made up of rock grains between 0.002 and 0.0;mm in size. Abrasion leads to steeper valley walls and mountain slopes in alpine settings, which can cause avalanches and rock slides, which add even more material to the glacier.
Glacial abrasion is commonly characterized by . Glaciers produce these when they contain large boulders that carve long scratches in the bedrock. By
the direction of the striations, researchers can determine the direction of the glacier's movement. Similar to striations are , lines of crescent-shape depressions in the rock underlying a glacier. They are formed by abrasion when boulders in the glacier are repeatedly caught and released as they are dragged along the bedrock.
The rate of glacier erosion varies. Six factors control erosion rate:
Velocity of glacial movement
Thickness of the ice
Shape, abundance and hardness of rock fragments contained in the ice at the bottom of the glacier
Relative ease of erosion of the surface under the glacier
Thermal conditions at the glacier base
Permeability and water pressure at the glacier base
When the bedrock has frequent fractures on the surface, glacial erosion rates tend to increase as plucking is the main erosive
when the bedrock has wide gaps between sporadic fractures, however, abrasion tends to be the dominant erosive form and glacial erosion rates become slow.
Glaciers in lower latitudes tend to be much more erosive than glaciers in higher latitudes, because they have more meltwater reaching the glacial base and facilitate sediment production and transport under the same moving speed and amount of ice.
Material that becomes incorporated in a glacier is typically carried as far as the
before being deposited. Glacial deposits are of two distinct types:
Glacial till: material directly deposited from glacial ice. Till includes a mixture of undifferentiated material ranging from clay size to boulders, the usual composition of a moraine.
Fluvial and outwash sediments: sediments deposited by water. These deposits are stratified by size.
Larger pieces of rock that are encrusted in till or deposited on the surface are called "". They range in size from pebbles to boulders, but as they are often moved great distances, they may be drastically different from the material upon which they are found. Patterns of glacial erratics hint at past glacial motions.
Glacial moraines above , , Canada
are formed by the deposition of material from a glacier and are exposed after the glacier has retreated. They usually appear as linear mounds of , a non-sorted mixture of rock, gravel and boulders within a matrix of a fine powdery material. Terminal or end moraines are formed at the foot or terminal end of a glacier. Lateral moraines are formed on the sides of the glacier. Medial moraines are formed when two different glaciers merge and the lateral moraines of each coalesce to form a moraine in the middle of the combined glacier. Less apparent are , also called glacial drift, which often blankets the surface underneath the glacier downslope from the equilibrium line.
The term moraine is of French origin. It was coined by peasants to describe alluvial embankments and rims found near the margins of glaciers in the French . In modern geology, the term is used more broadly, and is applied to a series of formations, all of which are composed of till. Moraines can also create moraine dammed lakes.
A drumlin field forms after a glacier has modified the landscape. The teardrop-shaped formations denote the direction of the ice flow.
are asymmetrical, canoe shaped hills made mainly of till. Their heights vary from 15 to 50 meters and they can reach a kilometer in length. The steepest side of the hill faces the direction from which the ice advanced (stoss), while a longer slope is left in the ice's direction of movement (lee).
Drumlins are found in groups called
or drumlin camps. One of these fiel it is estimated to contain about 10,000 drumlins.
Although the process that forms drumlins is not fully understood, their shape implies that they are products of the plastic deformation zone of ancient glaciers. It is believed that many drumlins were formed when glaciers advanced over and altered the deposits of earlier glaciers.
Glacial valleys, cirques, arêtes, and pyramidal peaks[]
Features of a glacial landscape
Before glaciation, mountain valleys have a characteristic , produced by eroding water. During glaciation, these valleys are often widened, deepened and smoothed to form a
glacial valley or glacial trough, as it is sometimes called. The erosion that creates glacial valleys truncates any spurs of rock or earth that may have earlier extended across the valley, creating broadly triangular-shaped cliffs called . Within glacial valleys, depressions created by plucking and abrasion can be filled by lakes, called . If a glacial valley runs into a large body of water, it forms a .
Typically glaciers deepen their valleys more than their smaller . Therefore, when glaciers recede, the valleys of the tributary glaciers remain above the main glacier's depression and are called .
At the start of a classic valley glacier is a bowl-shaped , which has escarped walls on three sides but is open on the side that descends into the valley. Cirques are where ice begins to accumulate in a glacier. Two glacial cirques may form back to back and erode their backwalls until only a narrow ridge, called an
is left. This structure may result in a . If multiple cirques encircle a single mountain,
particularly steep examples are called .
Passage of glacial ice over an area of bedrock may cause the rock to be sculpted into a knoll called a , or "sheepback" rock. Roches moutonnées may be elongated, rounded and asymmetrical in shape. They range in length from less than a meter to several hundred meters long. Roches moutonnées have a gentle slope on their up-glacier sides and a steep to vertical face on their down-glacier sides. The glacier abrades the smooth slope on the upstream side as it flows along, but tears rock fragments loose and carries them away from the downstream side via .
As the water that rises from the
moves away from the glacier, it carries fine eroded sediments with it. As the speed of the water decreases, so does its capacity to carry objects in suspension. The water thus gradually deposits the sediment as it runs, creating an . When this phenomenon occurs in a valley, it is called a valley train. When the deposition is in an , the sediments are known as .
Outwash plains and valley trains are usually accompanied by basins known as "". These are small lakes formed when large ice blocks that are trapped in alluvium melt and produce water-filled depressions. Kettle diameters range from 5 m to 13 km, with depths of up to 45 meters. Most are circular in shape because the blocks of ice that formed them were rounded as they melted.
Landscape produced by a receding glacier
When a glacier's size shrinks below a critical point, its flow stops and it becomes stationary. Meanwhile, meltwater within and beneath the ice leaves
alluvial deposits. These deposits, in the forms of columns,
and clusters, remain after the glacier melts and are known as "glacial deposits".
Glacial deposits that take the shape of hills or mounds are called . Some kames form when meltwater deposits sediments through openings in the interior of the ice. Others are produced by fans or
created by meltwater. When the glacial ice occupies a valley, it can form terraces or kames along the sides of the valley.
Long, sinuous glacial deposits are called . Eskers are composed of sand and gravel that was deposited by meltwater streams that flowed through ice tunnels within or beneath a glacier. They remain after the ice melts, with heights exceeding 100 meters and lengths of as long as 100 km.
Very fine glacial sediments or
is often picked up by wind blowing over the bare surface and may be deposited great distances from the original fluvial deposition site. These
deposits may be very deep, even hundreds of meters, as in areas of China and the Midwestern United States of America.
can be important in this process.
Isostatic pressure by a glacier on the Earth's crust
Large masses, such as ice sheets or glaciers, can depress the crust of the Earth into the mantle. The depression usually totals a third of the ice sheet or glacier's thickness. After the ice sheet or glacier melts, the mantle begins to flow back to its original position, pushing the crust back up. This , which proceeds very slowly after the melting of the ice sheet or glacier, is currently occurring in measurable amounts in
region of North America.
A geomorphological feature created by the same process on a smaller scale is known as dilation-faulting. It occurs where previously compressed rock is allowed to return to its original shape more rapidly than can be maintained without faulting. This leads to an effect similar to what would be seen if the rock were hit by a large hammer. Dilation faulting can be observed in recently de-glaciated parts of Iceland and Cumbria.
show geologic evidence of glacial deposits. The south polar cap is especially comparable to glaciers on Earth. Topographical features and computer models indicate the existence of more glaciers in Mars' past.
At mid-latitudes, between 35° and 65° north or south, Martian glaciers are affected by the thin Martian atmosphere. Because of the low atmospheric pressure, ablation near the surface is solely due to , not . As on Earth, many glaciers are covered with a layer of rocks which insulates the ice. A radar instrument on board the
found ice under a thin layer of rocks in formations called
The pictures below illustrate how landscape features on Mars closely resemble those on the Earth.
's Elephant Foot Glacier in the Earth's Arctic, as seen by Landsat 8. This picture shows several glaciers that have the same shape as many features on Mars that are believed to also be glaciers. The next three images from Mars show shapes similar to the Elephant Foot Glacier.
Mesa in , as seen by CTX. Mesa has several glaciers eroding it. One of the glaciers is seen in greater detail in the next two images from HiRISE. Image from .
Glacier as seen by HiRISE under the . Area in rectangle is enlarged in the next photo. Zone of accumulation of snow at the top. Glacier is moving down valley, then spreading out on plain. Evidence for flow comes from the many lines on surface. Location is in
Enlargement of area in rectangle of the previous image. On Earth the ridge would be called the terminal moraine of an alpine glacier. Picture taken with HiRISE under the HiWish program. Image from .
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This article draws heavily on the
in the , which was accessed in the version of 24 July 2005.
Hambrey, M Alean, Jürg (2004). Glaciers (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.  .  . An excellent less-technical treatment of all aspects, with superb photographs and firsthand accounts of glaciologists' experiences. All images of this book can be found online (see Weblinks: Glaciers-online)
Benn, Douglas I.; Evans, David J. A. (1999). Glaciers and Glaciation. Arnold.  .  .
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Hambrey, Michael (1994). Glacial Environments. University of British Columbia Press, UCL Press.  .  . An undergraduate-level textbook.
Knight, Peter G (1999). Glaciers. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes.  .  . A textbook for undergraduates avoiding mathematical complexities
Walley, Robert (1992). Introduction to Physical Geography. Wm. C. Brown Publishers. A textbook devoted to explaining the geography of our planet.
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