第一节 时 态
　　一、一般现在时
　　一般现在时通常表示习惯动作、一般状态、客观规律和永恒真理。如主语为第三人称单数, 动词后需加s或es。
　　He always gets up late on Sundays.(习惯动作)
　　He lives on a lonely island in the Pacific Ocean.(一般状态)
　　The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. (客观规律)
　　[提示]
　　在以等引导的时间状语从句中, 或以if, unless等引导的条件状语从句中, 通常用一般现在时代替一般将来时。
　　I’ll ring you as soon as he comes back. (as soon as, when, after一般现在时表将来时)
　　You’ll succeed if you try you best. (一般现在时表将来时)
　　二、现在进行时
　　现在进行时表示说话时正在进行的动作, 也表示目前一段时间内正在进行?的活动。表示后一种情况时, 动作不一定正在进行。
　　They are putting up the scaffolding.(说话时正在进行的动作)
　　Steve is studying Chinese in Beijing. (目前一段时间内正在进行的活动)
　　[提示]
　　1. 并非所有动词都有进行时, 有些表示状态和感觉的动词通常无进行时, 除非这类动词的词义发生变化。这类动词有:be, love, like,
　　hate, believe, think, feel, seem等。
　　Do you see anyone over there? (表示状态和感觉的动词通常无进行时)
　　Are you seeing someone off? (词义发生变化)
　　2. 现在进行时也可表示将来的动作: 它指按人们的计划、安排将要发生的动作或指即将开始的动作。
　　I’m leaving for Beijing tomorrow. (表示将来的动作)
　　Imagine I’m seeing the Mona Lisa. (表示将来的动作)
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　3. 现在进行时也可用来给习惯性动作加上赞赏或讨厌等感情色彩。
　　She is always cooking some delicious food for her family. (感情色彩)
　　He is always finding fault with his employees. (感情色彩)
　　三、现在完成时
　　现在完成时表示目前已完成的动作或刚刚完成的动作, 也可表示从过去某一刻发生, 现仍延续着的动作或情况。此时态强调动作对现在的影响。
　　The conference has lasted for five days. (已完成的动作)
　　He’s just bought an nuusual taxi. (刚刚完成的动作)
　　[提示]
　　1. 当句子中出现表示到现在为止这段时间的状语时, 谓语动词一般用现在完成时。
　　此类状语有up to (till) now, so far, these days, this summer, for…(后接一段时间的短语),
　　since…等。
　　We haven’t seen each other again since we graduated in 1987.
　　2. 句中谓语动词是用一般过去时还是用现在完成时主要取决于动作是否对现在有影响。
　　What did she say about it?
　　I have lived in Nanjing for 15 years. (对现在有影响)
　　四、一般过去时
　　一般过去时表示过去某个特定时间发生且一下子就完成的动作, 也可表示过去习惯性的动作。一般过去时不强调动作对现在的影响, 只说明过去。
　　I had a word with Julia this morning. (一下子就完成的动作)
　　He smoked forty cigarettes a day until he gave up. (习惯性的动作)
　　[提示]
　　1. 一般过去时常与表示过去的时间状语或从句连用, 如yesterday, last week, in 1993, at that time, once, during the war, before, a few days ago, when …等。
　　2.“used to+动词原形”表示“过去常常”而现在已停止的习惯动作。
　　He used to work fourteen hours a day. (过去常常)
　　另外, 注意区别“used to”和“be used to”。后者意为“习惯于…”, to为介词, 后跟名词或动名词。
　　She is used to hard work.
　　她习惯于艰苦工作。
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　　五、过去进行时
　　过去进行时表示过去某时正在发生的动作, 也可表示过去某段时间内正在发生或反复发生的动作。
　　Yesterday afternoon Frank Hawkins was telling me his experiences as a young man. (过去正在发生)
　　Bill was coughing all night long. (过去反复发生)
　　六、过去完成时
　　过去成时表示过去某时之前已完成的动作或状况。在时间上, 它属于“过去的过去”。在句中常有明显的参照动作或有表示“到过去某时为止”的时间?状语。
　　By the end of the war, the small workshop had become a large factory.
　　They found that a stream had formed in the field.
　　七、一般将来时
　　一般将来时表示某个将来时间会发生的动作或情况, 也可表示将来反复发生的动作或习惯性的动作。
　　He will take part in an important race across the Atlantic. (将来发生)
　　The students will have five English classes per week this term. (将来反复)
　　[提示]
　　be going to, be to, be about to等也可表示将来发生的动作, 但它们常常表示打算、计划、安排和即将要发生的动作。will表示说话人认为、相信、希望或假定要发生的动作或情况。
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　　八、将来进行时
　　将来时间时表示将来某时正在发生或持续的动作。其构成: will+be+动词的现在分词。
　　I’ll be reading this time tomorrow. (将来正在进行)
　　Most of the young people in the town will be meeting them at the station.(持续)
　　九、将来完成时
　　将来完成时表示将来某时前已完成的动作, 它与可用来表示推测。
　　They will have stayed here for five months next week. (将来完成)
　　By the end of next month, they will have studied twenty passages. (推测)
　　十、现在完成进行时
　　现在完成时间时表示从过去某时开始一直持续到现在的动作。此动作或情况可能已停止, 也可能继续下经也可表示刚结束的动作。
　　I’ve been working for IBM for 15 years.
　　I’ve been waiting for an hour but she still hasn’t come.
　　[提示]
　　现在完成时和现在完成进行时的区别是: 前者一般表示已结束的动作或情况, 它强调对现在的影响。后者一般表示仍在进行或刚刚还在进行的动作或情况, 它强调动作的延续性。
　　I have thought it over.
　　我已经考虑过这件事了。
　　I have been thinking it over.
　　我一直在考虑这件事。
　　Be carful! Peter have been painting the car.
　　注意!彼得刚才还在给这部车上油漆。(油漆尚未干)。
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　　第二节 语 态
　　被动语态常用于下列几种情况:
　　一、动作的执行者无需指出或不明确时
　　Printing was introduced into Europe from China.
　　Rome was not built in a day.
　　二、为了强调动作的承受者
　　Four people were killed and thirty-one injured in the bomb attack.
　　Susan was singled out for praise yesterday.
　　三、为了修辞的需要
　　He started to complain about this wicked world but was interrupted by a knock at the door.
　　Yesterdayu he visited our university and was welcomed by the President.
　　[提示]
　　1. 除及物动词外, 一些相当于及物动词的短语动词也可作用被动态形式, 除个别情况外, 短语动词一般不拆开使用。
　　This matter will be dealt with as soon as possible.(短语)
　　2. 不及物动词(或相当于一个不及物动词的短语动词)和表示状态的动词(或短语动词)无被动态形式, 如happen, rise, occur, take place, break out等; 以及lack, fit, suit, equal, become, resemble, befall, consist of,look like等。
　　The story took place in 1949.
　　3. 将主动态形式改为被动态形式时如遇到动词后跟双宾语的情况, 我们只能将其中之一变成主语, 另一个保持不变。当直接宾语变成主语时, 保持在原位的间接宾语前需加介词to。
　　I gave my hasband a tie as a birthday pressent.
　　→My hasband was given a tie as a birthday present.
　　→A tie was given to my husband as a birthday present.
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　　第三节 虚拟语气
　　一、虚拟式用于非真实条件句时的构成
　　If I had time, I would go to the movies with you.
　　If we hadn’t made adequate preparations, the conference, wouldn’t have been so successful.
　　If it were to rain tomorrow, the game would be put off.
　　[提示]
　　1. 在非真实条件句中, 有时从句的动词所表示的动作和主句的动词所表示的动作并不同时发生,这样的条件句中使用的虚似式称为混合虚拟式。其构成视具体情况而定。
　　If I had taken my raincoat when I came out this morning, I would not be wet now.
　　If I were you, I wouldn’t have missed the film last night.
　　2. 引导非真实条件从句的连词if在正式文件中有时可以省去, were, had,
　　should等非行为动词这时应提到从句句首。
　　If I were you, I wouldn’t feel sorry.
　　→Were I you, I wouldn’t feel sorry.
　　3. 有些句子从表层结构上看无if引导的非真实条件句, 但从深层意思上看是存在的。这种情况下主句动词仍需用虚拟式。这类句子中常出现without(如果没有), but for(要不是),otherwise(否则), but that(若不, 后接一从句)等词或词组。
　　But for your help, they couldn’t have succeeded.
　　要不是你的帮助, 他们就不会取得成功。
　　She wasn’t felling well. Otherwise she wouldn’t have left the meeting so early.
　　她感不舒服。不然她不会那么早就离开会场的。
　　二、虚拟式也可用于其他情况
　　1. 在it’s necessary (important, natural, essential, proposed, required,
　　suggested, impossible, strange) that…引导的真正的主语从句中动词应用虚拟式,
　　表示必要、应该、建议、要求、惊讶、不相信等意。
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　　It’s necessary that we (should) set out at once.
　　It’s proposed that a committee (should) be set up to look into the matter.
　　It’s only natural that you should be nervous. 你感到紧张是很自然的。
　　The dentist suggested that she (should) come another day.
　　It is highly important that we (should) combine revolutionary sweep with
　　practicalness. "对我们来说,把革命气概和实际精神结合起来是很重要的。"
　　It is impossible that he should have missed the train. 他不可能误车。
　　It’s strange that he should have failed in the exam.
　　2. 在ask, require, order, demand, suggest, propose, command, insist?
　　等动词后的宾语从句中, 动词也用虚拟式, 表示命令、建议、要求等。
　　I suggest that we (should) go camping tomorrow.
　　He insisted that our laboratory reports (should) be handed in the day afterthe experiment was done. 他坚持要求我们在做完实验后第二天将实验报告交上来。
　　He asked that they (should) be allowed to use a dictionary.他要求准许他们用词典。
　　The director required that we should work all night主任要求我们通宵工作。
　　The mayor ordered that free food be distributed.市长命令发放免费食品。
　　The boss demanded that Mary (should) finish it within a week.老板要求玛丽在一周内完成它。
　　I propose we should have another meeting. 我提议我们再开一次会议。
　　I command that he go at once.我命令他立即就去
　　注意,以上句中insist意为“坚持要求”。如insist作“坚持认为”解, 则不需用虚拟式。
　　He insisted that he was right.
　　他坚持认为他是对的。
　　3. 虚拟式可用于wish后的宾语从句中, 表示与事实相反的愿望。
　　I wish I had been to the concert last night.
　　I wish he would forgive me.
　　4. It’s (high, about) time that…的句型要求用虚拟式, 表示应该做还没做的事。((时节)正盛的;(时机)成熟的)
　　It’s high time that he stopped smoking.
　　It is high time you made up your mind.你该拿主意了。
　　It’s about time that we took our leave.
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　　5. 在I would (had) rather后的句子中, 动词也要求用虚拟式, 表示某人的愿望。
　　I’d rather you left tommorrow instead of today.
　　I’d rather he hadn’t done anything like that.
　　6. 在as if (though) 引导的状语从句中, 谓语动词有时用虚拟式。
　　She looks as if she knew all about it.
　　They talked as though they had got acquainted with each other for years.
　　第四节 倒 装
　　倒装语序有两类: 全部倒装和部分倒装。
　　全部倒装：指谓语部分全部提到主语之前;
　　部分倒装：指谓语的一部分提到主语之前。
　　倒装语序常出现在下列情况中:
　　1. 为避免句子部分内容重复, 英语中常用倒装句,即: so (neither, nor)+be动词(助动词, 情态动词)+主语。
　　My fater is an engineer; so is my husband.
　　Jane didn’t attend my class yesterday; nor did Torris.
　　"John can’t swim." "Neither can I.""约翰不会游泳。" "我也不会。"
　　[提示]如表示赞同别人的陈述, so后面的部分不倒装。
　　"Jim is a good-swimmer."
　　"So he is, and so is Dick."
　　2. 具有否定意义的词或短语置于句首时, 句子一般部分倒装,即将be动词、助动词或情态动词提到主语前。这类词或短语包括: not, never, seldom, hardly, rarely, scarcely, by no means, under no circumstances, in no way, at no time,no sooner…(then),
hardly …(when), not only…(but also)等。
　　Never has my brother been abroad before.
　　Hardly had I sat down when I heard someone knocking at the door.
　　No sonner had he returned than he bought a fine house and went to live there.
　　At no time should you give up studying.在任何时候你都不应放弃读书。
　　[提示]
　　(1)如果句首的否定词修饰主语, 是主语的一部分, 则句子不用倒装。
　　Scarcely a drop of rain fell last month.
　　(2) as或though引导的让步状语从句常用倒装。一般将一些形容词、副词等置于句首。
　　Prominent as he is in his field, he remains easy-going.
　　Wealthy as he is, I don’t envy him.
　　3. 当so, often, only等表示程序或频率的副词置于句首时, 句子一般倒装。
　　So great was the destruction that the south took decades to recovery.
　　Often does he warn us not to touch the poisonous chemical.
　　Only in this way can we accomplish it on time.
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　　4. 当there, here, then, now等副词置于句首, 且谓语动词为come, go, be等词时,句子一般全部倒装。此类倒装句旨在引起别人注意。但如果主语是代词。句子则不倒装。
　　Look! Here comes the taxi.
　　Here are some letters for you to type.
　　Then came the chairman.
　　5. 当out, in, away, up, bang等方位或拟声词置于句首时, 句子一般全部倒装。此类倒装句比正常程序的句子的更生动、形象。但如主语是代词, 句子则不倒装。
　　Away flew the bird.
　　Bang goes my ace.
　　Away she went.
　　Ahead sat an old woman.
　　第五节 从 句
　　从句按其在主句中的句法功能可分为三类:
　　即名词性从句、形容词性从句(即定语从句)和副词性从句(即状语从句)。
　　引导从句的词称作关联句.
　　一、名词性从句
　　引导这些名词性从句的关联词包括:
　　从属连词that, if, whether;
　　连接代词who,whoever,whom,whomever,which,whichever,what,whatever,whose;
　　连接副词where, when, why, how。
　　其中, 从属连词只起连接作用, 在从句中不充当任何句法成分,
　　而连接代词和连接副词既起连接作用, 在从句中又充当一定的成分.
　　That Owen should have married his cousin is not at all surprising.
　　The fact is that he didn’t go to the dinner party.
　　I don’t know if he will attend the meeting.
　　Have you heard the news that Mary is going to marry Tom?
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　　你听说玛丽要和汤姆结婚的消息了吗?(that引导同位语从句)
　　[提示]
　　1. 在含有主语从句的复合句中, 为保持句子平衡, 常用it作形式主语,而将真正的主语从句置于句末.
　　It’s well-known that water is indispensable to life.(形式主语)
　　2. 为保持句子平衡, that引导的宾语从句也常用it代替, 而将真正的宾语从句置于主句句末。这常常出现在主句有形容词或分词作宾语补足语的情况下。
　　He made it quite clear that he preferred to live here.
　　3. 从属连词whether和if都作“是否…”解, 但if不可引导主语从句和表语
　　从句。whether可与or(not)连用, 而if不可以。
　　I don’t know whether (if) she is at home.
　　Whether she comes or not makes no difference.
　　4. that和what引导名词性从句的区别: that在从句中不充当成分,而what在从句中充当一定的成分, 如主语、表语、宾语等。that可省略, what则不可省。
　　He always means what he says.
　　She suggested (that) he do it at once.
　　5. 同位语从句大多由从属连词that引导, 常跟在下列名词后面, 如fact, idea, opinion, news, hope, belief等, that不可省。同位语从句一般用来解释说明这些名词的具体含义和内容。
　　We are familiar with the idea that all matter consists of atoms.
　　The news that we are invited to the conference is very encouraging.
　　二、定语从句
　　引导定语从句的关联词包括:
　　(1)关系代词:that, which, whose, who, whom, as;
　　(2)关系副词:when, where, why。
　　关系代词和关系副词在定语从句中都充当一定的句法成分,
　　关系代词在句中充当动词的宾语时, 一般可省去。
　　关系代词的选用比较复杂, 它受下列条件的制约:
　　(1)先行词是指人还是指物;
　　(2)关系代词在从句中的句法功能;
　　(3)定语从句是限定性的还是非限定性的。
　　关系代词的选用情况见下表:
　　先行词在从句中的句法功能 用于限定性或非限定性定语从句 只用于限定性定语从句
　　指人或指物 指人 指物
　　主语 who which that
　　宾语 whom which that
　　定语 whose whose(of which)
　　I know that he is a man who (that) means what be says.
　　The gentleman whom (that) she met addressed her with courtesy(礼貌)。
　　The watch which (that) was lost has been found.
　　Here is the meterial which (that) you need.
　　You’re the only one whose advice he might listen to.
　　关系副词的选用相对来说较简单。如先行词为表示时间的名词, 如time, day等, 则用when; 如先行词为表示地点的名词, 如place, house, area等,则用where; 如先行词为reason, 则用why。
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　　I’ll never forget the mountain village where (in which) I spent my childhood.
　　I don’t know the reason why (for which) he did that.
　　[提示]
　　1. 当先行词是all, something, nothing等不定代词时;或先行词前有first,last, only, few, much, some, any, no等修饰时;或先行词前有形容词最高级修时, 一般只用that而不用which来引导定语从句。
　　I’ve explained everything (that) I can to you.
　　This is the most beautiful compus (that) I’ve ever been to.
　　2. 定语从句分为限定性定语从句和非限定性定语从句, 限定性定语从句与主句关系紧密, 为句中不可缺少的部分, 如去掉, 主句意思不完整。非限定性定语从句与主句关系松散, 如去掉, 主句内容仍完整。在书面语中, 非限定性定语从句一般被逗句隔开。非限定性定语从句一般不用that引导。引导非限定性定语从句的关系词不可省略。
　　His speech, which bored everyone, went on and on.
　　The general’s daughter, whose name is Ann, gave me a sweet smile.
　　3. 先行词也可以是整个句子。这时, 一般用which或as来引导定语从句。 which在从句中可充当主语、宾语等, as在从句中一般只充当主语。which与as引导此类定语从句的区别在于: which只能置于句中或句末, 而as的位置比较灵活, 可置于句中、句末, 又可置于句首。
　　Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen, which (as) is known to all.
　　He was awarded a gold medal, which the whole family considered a great honor.
　　As had been expected, he finished first in decathlon(十项全能) at that Olympic Games.
　　4. 关系代词在定语从句中有时也做介词的宾语。如果介词被置于关系代词前, 一般只用介词+which或介词+whom, 而不用介词+that来此导定语从句。如果介词被置于从句句末, 则可用that代替which或whom,且that这时可省去。
　　This is the ring on which she spent 1,000 dollars.
　　One of my colleagues whom (that) you are familiar with will come today.
　　三、状语从句
　　在复合句中, 起状语作用的从句称作状语从句。
　　根据语义, 状语从句分为:
　　时间状语从句、地点状语从句、条件状误从句、原因状语从句、
　　让步状语从句、比较状语从句、目的状语从句、结果状语从句、
　　方式状语从句。
　　状语从句可放在句首或句末。如状语从句位于主语前,一般用逗号将其与主句隔开。
　　(一)时间状语从句
　　When you cross a main road, you must be very careful.
　　Until we learn the facts, we can’t do anything about it.
　　[提示]
　　1. when, as, while引导时间状语从句时都可以表示主句的动作与从句的动作同时发生, 即同时性。它们的区别在于:
　　when和as引导的状语从句中的动作既可以是延续性的, 也可以是非延续性的, 即瞬时性的;
　　while引导的状语从句中的动作只能是延续的动作或状态。
　　当主句和从句中的动作均为延续动作时, 一般用while, 而不用when或as。当表示两个同时发展、变化的情况时, 一般用as, 作“随着…”解。
　　When she comes, I shall tell her to wait for you.
　　As she got older, she got wiser.
　　While Peter was reading, his wife was cooking.
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　　2. 有些副词和一些表示时间的名词词组也可用作从属连词,引导时间状语从句。如instantly, immediately, directly, the day, every time, the minute, the second, the moment等。
　　Immediately he arrived, he started describing us what had happened.
　　The day he returned home, his grandpa was alrady dead.
　　(二)条件状语从句
　　引导条件状语从句的从属连词有:
　　if, unless, as (so) long as, only if(只要)。
　　If you don’t come on time, we’ll start out without you.
　　As (so) long as you keep on trying, you’ll certainly succeed.
　　[提示]
　　除了以上提到的从属连词外, 还有其它的一些词或词组也可引导条件状语从句。
　　如: providing that, provided, supposing that, suppose that, on condition that, in case等。
　　Provided (that) he wins the support of the minority groups,he will be able to win the electrion.
　　I will go providing that my expenses are paid.要是我的费用有人代付我就去
　　Supposing he is not at home, what then?假如他不在家,那怎么办?
　　You can use the bicycle on condition that you return it tomorrow.只要你明天归还,自行车你可以拿去用。
　　In case she comes back, let me know immediately.假使她回来了,立刻告诉我
　　Take the raincoat in case it rains.带着雨衣,以防下雨。
　　(三)原因状语从句
　　引导原因状语从句从句的从属连词有: becasue, since, as, now(that), in that, considering that等。
　　Since the speaker can’t come, we’ll have to cancel the meeting.
　　Considering he’s only been learning English a year he speaks it very well.考虑到他只学了一年英语,他讲得算是很流利了。
　　We didn’t know what to do as we were just visiting there.我们不知道该怎么办,因为当时我们仅仅在那里作访问。
　　Since it is so hot, let’s go swimming.既然天气这么热,我们去游泳吧。
　　[提示]
　　in that和now(that)的用法: in that引导的从句对主句进行解释和说明,意思是: 在…方面, 在于…; 因为。now(that)表示既然。
　　Theory is valuable in that it can provide a direction for practice.
　　理论所以有价值,就在于它能给实践指出方向。
　　Now (that) the weather has improved, let’s go out for a picnic.
　　既然天气已转好, 我们就出去野餐吧。
　　(四)让步状语从句
　　引导让步状语从句的从属连词有: though, although, even if (even though), as, no matter…despite the fact that, in spite of the fact that, while。
　　Tom always enjoys swimming, even though the weather is rough.
　　Despite the fact that there exists national differences,certain funny situations have a universal appeal.
　　Tired as he was, he sat up late.他虽然疲倦,可仍然很晚才睡。
　　No matter how they slander us, we will never give in.不管他们怎样诽谤我们,我们决不让步。
　　While I like the color of the hat, I do not like its shape.虽然我喜欢这顶帽子的颜色,但我不喜欢它的形状。
　　[提示]
　　一些疑问词在词尾加上ever后, 也可引导让步状语从句,相当于no matter+疑问词。这些词包括: whatever, wherever, whenever, whoever, however。
　　Whatever he says, don’t beleve him.
　　Whoever you are, you must obey the traffic regulations.
　　(五)目的状语从句
　　引导目的状语从句的从属连词有: so that, in order that, lest, in case, for fear that。
　　They climbed to the top of the building in order that they could get a bird’s-eye view of the city.
　　Ask her to hurry up with these letters so that I can sign them.
　　Take an umbrella in case it rains.
　　We dare not play jokes on him lest he should become angry.我们不敢开他玩笑生怕他动气。
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　　[提示]
　　so that和in order that的区别: so that更常用, in order that更正式。so that引导的从句一般置于句末,而in order that引导的从句既可置于句首, 又可置于句末。
　　In order that the grass and flowers could bloom again,it was necessary that the rocks should be removed.
　　She got up early so that she could catch the first bus.
　　(六)结果状语从句
　　结果状语从句一般由下列连词引导: so that, so…that, such…that。
　　He overslept, (so) that he was late for work.
　　They got such a fright that they dropped the bag and ran away.
　　[提示]
　　1. so…that和such…that的区别。so后接形容词或副词, such后接名词。
　　It was so cold that we had to cancel the game.
　　It’s such a good chance that we mustn’t miss it.
　　2. so that既可引导目的状语从句, 也可引导结果状语从句。so that引导目的状语从句时, 一般从句动词前会出现can(could),may(might),shall(should),而so that引导的结果状语从句表示客观事实, 不会出现上述词语。
　　引导结果状语从句的so that前常有逗号, 表示强调。so that引导的目的状语可置于句首,而so that引导的结果状语从句只能置于句末。
　　He left early so that he could catch the train.
　　他早早动身, 以便能赶上车。(目的)
　　He left early, so that he caught the train.
　　他早早动身, 赶上了火车。(结果)
　　(七)方式状语从句
　　引导方式状语从句的从属连词有as, as if(though), the way, how。
　　He made some changes as you had suggested.
　　She was behaving as if (though) she hadn’t grown up.
　　第六节 强 调
　　一、一般强调结构
　　强调结构为: It is (was)…that…。
　　它可以用来强调句中的某些成分, 如主语(从句)、宾语(从句)、状语(从句)等。
　　如强调主语或宾语, 则that可用who(指人), whom或which(指物)来代替;
　　如强调的是状语, 则不能用when, where等代替, 只能用that。
　　注意, 强调结构不能用来强调谓语动词和表语。
　　It was my uncle that (who) sent me the parcel.
　　It is the article that (which) they discussed last week.
　　It was because he was too careless that he broke all the glasses.
　　It is in this room that I was born 30 years ago.
　　一、谓语动词用do, does, did表示强调
　　在肯定句中, 可以用do强调谓语部分, 可谓为:“务必”、“一定”、“真的”、“确实”等。这时动词要用原形。
　　He does like to eat noodles.
　　She did send me a postcark as I expected.
　　第七节 一 致
　　一致指句子成分之间或词语之间在性、数等方面应保持一致。
　　主谓一致指谓语动词与主语必须在人称、性、数上保持一致。
　　在具体处理一致关系时可遵循以下三原则:语法一致、意义一致、就近一致。
　　一、集体名词作主语时, 主语与谓语动词的一致
　　如集体名词在句中意指整体概念, 谓语动词用单数形式;
　　如在句中意指其具体成员, 谓语动词复数形式。
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　　这类集体名词包括:army, audience, class, committee, crowd, crew, couple, family, group, staff, team, public, cabinet, band等。
　　The population of the earth is increasing very fast.
　　One third of the population here are farmers.
　　The public has every reason to be cautious of professional deception.
　　The public now know the whole story.
　　The teaching staff of this college is/are excellent.这所大学的教师都是出类拔萃的
　　二、学科名称和疾病名称作主语时, 主语与谓语动词的一致
　　某些学科名称和疾病名称虽是复数形式, 但这些词作主语时,谓语动词仍用单数形式。
　　这些词包括: electronics(电子学), mechanics(力学),classics(古典文学), linguistics(语言学), economics(经济学),statistics(统计学), physics(物理学), mathematics(数学)等。
　　Electronics is a piece of cake to him.
　　Qiantum mechanics(量子力学) supplies methods for calculating the results of experiments in all those realms.
　　三、表示书名、报名、剧名、国名等的名词或词组作主语时,主语与谓语动词的一致
　　表示书名、报名、剧名、国名等的名词(或词组)作主语时,如只指一种、一本或一个, 不论它形式上是单数还是复数,谓语动词只用单数形式。
　　The adventrues of Huckleberry Finn was written by the famous American umorist Mark Twain.
　　The New York Times is not available here.
　　The United States was founded in 1776.
　　四、单复数同形的名词作主语时, 主语与谓语动词的一致
　　单复数同形的名词作主语时, 要根据句子意思来确定谓语动词的单复数形式,单复数同形的名词包括: aircraft, deer, fish, sheep , means, species, series, works, crossroads headquarters等。
　　Various means of transport are introduced in this article.
　　There are already 137 species of butterflies known in the world today.
　　It is all a means to an end.这只是达到目的的一种手段。
　　The airline ordered 15 new aircraft.那家航空公司订购了十五架新飞机。
　　五、表示时间、距离、度量、价值的复数名词作主语时,主语与谓语动词的一致
　　这些复数名词, 如表示抽象概念, 被视作一整体时,谓语动词用单数形式;如表示具体的多少, 强调复数意义时,谓语动词用复数形式。
　　Ten minutes is all that I can spare for you.
　　Six thousand dollars is a large sum of money to her.
　　The fifty miles were covered by the winner in three hours.
　　六、由with, as well as等词或词组修饰的单数名词作主语时,主语与谓语动词的一致.
　　如作主语的单数名词后有下列词或词组修饰时, 谓语动词仍用单数形式: with, along with, together with, besides, as well as, in addition to, accompanied by, rather than, but等。
　　The teacher as well as the students likes this novel.
　　A scientist, together with some assistants,was sent to help solve that problem.
　　The boss, rather than his employees, is to blame.
　　Nobody but San and Ann is in the lab.
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　　七、and连接的两个名词作主语时, 主语与谓语动词的一致
　　一般情况下, and连接的两个名词作主语时, 谓语动词用复数形式。但有些情况下, and连接的两个名词意指同一人物、同一事物、同一概念时,谓语动词要用单数形式。通常, 如果两个名词只有一个限定词或无限定词修饰时,它们常常表示一个概念, 如果两个名词分别有两个限定词修饰时,它们往往表示两个不同的概念。
　　另外, 如果and连接的两个单数名词均有each, every , many a,no等词修饰时, 谓语动词用单数形式。
　　War and peace is a constant theme in history.
　　The wear and tear on the machine is obvious.
　　The secretary and manager was present at the meeting.
　　Every hour and every minute is vital to me now.
　　Many a boy and many a girl has been to the exhibition.
　　八、连词or等连接两个名词(或代词)作主语时, 主语与谓语动词的一致
　　连词or, either…or…, neither…nor…, not only…but also…连接两个名词或代词作主语时,谓语动词必须和靠它较近的一个名词或代词取得一致, 这就是就近一致原则。
　　Either I or they are responsible for it.
　　Neither your unkind words nor your unfriendly attitude has caused me any distress.
　　Not only he but also his amily members are interested in football match.
　　九、其他情况下的主谓语一致
　　1.none本身作主语时或它修饰的名词或代词作主语时, 如代表不可数名词,谓语动词用单数形式, 如代表可数名词,谓语动词既可用单数形式也可用复数形式。
　　None of the telephones are/is working.所有的电话都坏了。
　　2. one and a half后接的名词应是复数形式, 但谓语动词用单数形式。
　　如:One and a half years has passed.
　　3. more than one后接单数可数名词作主语时, 谓语动词用单数形式,但如果more than one本身作主语, 谓语动词则用复数形式。
　　More than one question has been discussed.
　　4. either, neither作主语时, 谓语动词用单数形式.
　　Neither shoe fits comfortably.两只鞋都不合脚。
　　Neither of my friends has come yet.我的两个朋友都还没来。
　　5. one or two后接复数名词作主语时, 谓语动词用复数形式.
　　I shall be away only one or two days.
　　6. one of 后接复数名词作主语时, 谓语动词用单数形式.
　　John is the only one of the students who has been to France.
　　7. 动词不定式、动名词短语、名词性从句等作主语时,谓语动词用单数形式。
　　Seeing is believing.
　　To hesitate means failure.
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　　第八节 非谓语动词用定语和状语
　　一、非谓语动词的概念
　　非谓语动词是指动词不定式、动名词和分词。它们是动词的非限定形式。在句子中它们起着一些特殊的作用。以下简要介绍它们各自的构成、作用及应用。
　　二、动词不定式
　　不定式是指带to的动词原形(使用中有时不带to),在句中起形容词或副词的作用, 可以作状语和定语。
　　(一)作定语
　　1. 动词不定式与其修的词之间往往有动宾关系, 如果该不定式是不及物动词, 其后有必要的介词。
　　He’s pleasant fellow to work with.
　　There’s nothing to worry about.
　　2. 有些名词后常跟不定式作定语。例如: time, reason, chance, right, ability, willingness, need, anxiety, wish, plan等。
　　Women should have the right to receive education.
　　There is no time to hesitate.
　　3. the first, the second, the last, the best 等之后用不定式做定语。
　　The monitor will be the first to come.
　　He was the last man to blame.
　　(二)作状语
　　1. 作目的状语
　　不定式作状语时, 其动作发生在谓语动词之后, 一般置于句子末尾。但是, 如果表示强调, 亦可置于句首。其否定形式为: 在不定式符号前加not。
　　He went to Shanghai to visit his parents.
　　To save the earth, we must prevent the earth from being polluted.
　　I shut the door quietly, so as not to wake the baby.
　　2. 作结果状语
　　We came home after our holiday to find our garden neat and tidy.
　　She left home, never to return again.
　　3. 作原因状语
　　不定式做原因状语时, 一般放在句子末尾。
　　She burst into laughter to see his funny action.
　　The boy was shocked to see the frightening scene.
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　　4. 作独立成分
　　有些固定词组带to不定式, 表明说话人的立场或态度, 在句中作独立成分。
　　这些词有:
　　to be honest, to begin with, to cut a long story short,to get (back) to the point, not to make much of it,to put it another way, to tell the truth等。
　　To tell you the truth, I have never been to Beijing.
　　To be honest, I have never heard of Winston Churchill.
　　We can’t go. To begin with, it’s too cold.我们不能去。首先,天太冷了。
　　To cut a long story short, I decided to stay.简而言之,我决定留下。
　　In the cousre of a day students do far more than just attend classes.(more than+不带to的不定式)
　　三、动名词
　　动名词也是动词的一种非限定形式, 由动词原形加词尾-ing构成。与现在分词构成法相同。它同时具有动词及名词特征。
　　以下主要介绍其做定语及状语的情况。
　　1. 作定语
　　None is allowed to smoke in the waiting room.
　　The speeding car came to a stop all of a sudden.
　　2. 作状语
　　介词+动名词可以作状语用, 表示时间、原因、目的、让步、方式等。
　　After finishing the job, he went home.
　　He was blamed for having done something wrong.
　　They went to Manchester with the object of winning the World Championship.
　　四、分词
　　分词是动词的三种非限定形式之一, 包括现在分词和过去分词两种。分词可以在句中作状语及定语。
　　(一)现在分词与过去分词的区别
　　现在分词与过去分词的区别主要表现在语态和时间概念上。在语态上,现在分词(除被动式外)表示主动意思, 过去分词表示被动意思。在时间上, 现在分词表示动作正在进行, 过去分词则表示动作已完成。
　　developing countries(发展中国家)
　　developed countries(发达国家)
　　the touching tale(动人的传说)
　　the touched audince(受感动的观众)
　　(二)现在分词的用法
　　现在分词可在句中作定语和状语。
　　1. 作定语
　　现在分词作定语时多置于它所修饰的名词前:
　　This is a pressing question.
　　这是一个紧迫的问题。
　　He asked an embarrassing question.
　　他提了一个令人难堪的问题。
　　现在分词亦可置于它所修饰的名词之后:
　　There were no soldiers drilling.
　　现在分词短语一般皆置于其修饰的名词之后:
　　A little child learning to walk often falls.
　　The men working here are all from the rural areas.
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　　2. 现在分词用作状语
　　现在分词及其短语从表意的角度看, 也可用作状语, 表示时间、原因、结果、条件、让步、方式或伴随情况等。其动作可能发生在谓语动词之前或之后, 也可能与谓语动的动作同时发生。
　　(1)表示时间
　　Climbing to the top of the tower, we saw a magnificent view.
　　He went out shutting the door behind him.
　　强调与谓语动词的动作同时发生时, 现在分词之前可用连词when或while:
　　When leaving the airport, they waved again and agin to us.
　　While flying over the Channel, the pilot saw what he thought to be a meteorite.
　　(2)表示原因
　　Being sick, I stayed at home.
　　She caught cold sitting on the grass.
　　(3)表示条件
　　Adopting this method, we will raise the average yield by 40 percent.
　　Turning to the right, you will find a path leading to his cottage.
　　(4)表示让步
　　Admitting what she has said, I still think that she hasn’t tried her best.
　　(5)表示结果
　　It rained heavily, causing severe flooding in that country.
　　It rained for two weeks on end, completely ruining our holday.
　　(6)表示方式或伴随情况
　　He ran up to her breathing heavily.
　　Please fill in the form, giving your name, address, etc.
　　(三)过去分词的作用
　　1. 作定语
　　过去分词可以作定语。如果是单词，常置于其所修饰的名词之前，例如：
　　Did you pay a visit to the tomb of the unknown soldier?
　　2. 作状语
　　(1)时间状语
　　Heated,the metals expands
　　When seen through a telescope,the sun appears darker near the edge
　　(2)表示原因
　　Born and bred in the countryside, he was bewildered by the big city.
　　Overcome with surprise, she was unable to utter a word.
　　(3)表示条件
　　United,we stand;divided,we fall.
　　Given more time,I’ll do it better.
　　(4)表示让步
　　Considered as a building material,wood is not very strong.
　　Badly involved in the accident,the car is still running.
　　(5)表示方式或伴随
　　He came back,utterly exhausted.
　　United as one, the people of the whole country are striving for greater successes in socialist construction.
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　　(四)分词独立结构
　　It being a holiday,I went fishing.
　　Weather permitting, we shall start tomorrow.
　　The plan having been approved of,what is most important is to carry it out.计划被批准后，最重要的是付诸实施。
　　She gazed, her hands clasped to her breast.她凝视着，双手交叉在胸前。
　　Generally speaking,we now live in a comparatively peaceful an rich world.
　　Judging from what you said,he is a stone-heartd person.
　　He fell asllep with the lamp burning
　　The day was bright,with a fresh breeze blowing.
　　第九节 非谓语动词作词宾语和宾语补足语
　　一、非谓语动词(短语)作动词宾语
　　1. 要求动词+-ing作宾语的动词
　　有些动词只要求动词+-ing作宾语, 这类动词有:admit, advise, advocate, allow, anticipate, appreciate, avoid, consider,delay, deny, endure, enjoy, escape, excuse, fancy, finish, imagine, include, involve,
justify, keep, mind, miss, pardon, permit, postpone, prevent, quit, regret, require, resent, resist, risk, stop, suggest, understand, can’t help (couldn’t help), stand 等, 例如:
　　I couldn’t help feeling proud of our country.
　　Someone suggested organizing an outing to the Western Hills.
　　I suggest our going to the park on Sunday.我建议我们星期天去公园。
　　It has stopped raining.雨停了。
　　They risked losing their jobs.他们冒着失去工作的风险。
　　The roof requires repairing.屋顶需要修理了。
　　I believe you will regret leaving Paris.我相信你会为离开巴黎而后悔的。
　　He has quit smoking.他已戒了烟。
　　They postponed sending an answer to a request.他们耽搁了对一项请求的答覆。
　　The child kept asking me questions.这孩子老是问我问题。
　　She missed going to the party on Saturday.星期六她没能出席聚会。
　　Would you mind switching the television to channel 8?请把电视转到八频道好吗?
　　Your wish to go for a walk does not justify your leaving the baby alone in the house. 你想出去散步并不证明将婴儿独自留在屋中是对的。
　　Can you imagine her becoming a pilot? 你能想象她成了飞行员吗?
　　I haven’t finished reading the book yet.我还没读完这本书。
　　Fancy sitting in the sun all day!想一想整天坐在太阳底下的滋味吧!
　　We were lucky to escape being punished.我们很幸运,没有受罚。
　　I enjoyed reading these books very much.我很喜欢读这些书。
　　I cannot endure being disturbed in my work. 我不能忍受在工作的时候受人干扰。
　　He denied having seen these watches before.他否认曾经见过这些手表。
　　Our teacher does not allow cheating to go unpunished. 我们的老师不容许欺骗行为不受到惩罚。
　　We’re considering moving to Seattle.我们考虑搬往西雅图。
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2011年桂林电子科技大学工商管理硕士复试政治试题
2012年上海理工大学工商管理硕士复试政治试题
全国工商管理硕士研究生管理学模拟试题
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