From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Skeleton is a
in which a person rides a small , known as a skeleton bobsled (or -sleigh), down a frozen track while lying face down and head-first. The sport and the sled may have been named from the bony appearance of the sled.
Unlike other sliding sports of
and , the race always involves single riders. Like bobsleigh, but unlike luge, the race begins with a running start from the opening gate at the top of the course. The skeleton sled is thinner and heavier than the luge sled, plus skeleton gives the rider more control making it safer than luge. Skeleton is the slowest of the three sliding sports, as skeleton's face down head-first riding position is less aerodynamic than luge's face up, feet-first ride.
Previously, skeleton appeared in the Olympic program in , , in
and again in . It was added permanently to the Olympic program for the , at which stage a women's race was added.
During elite racing the rider experiences forces up to 5  and reaches speeds over 130 km/h (80 mph).
The skeleton originated in , , as a spinoff of the popular British sport called . Although skeleton "sliders" use equipment similar to that of Cresta "riders", the two sports are different: while skeleton is run on the same track used by
and , Cresta is run on Cresta-specific sledding tracks only. Skeleton sleds are steered using torque provided by the head and shoulders. The Cresta toboggan does not have a steering or braking mechanism, though Cresta riders use rakes on their boots in addition to shifting body weight to help
The sport of skeleton can be traced to 1882, when English soldiers constructed a
track between the towns of
in . While toboggan tracks were not uncommon at the time, the added challenge of curves and bends in the Swiss track distinguished it from those of Canada and the . The source of some speculating because the original sleds looked like , and others because of an incorrectly
version of the
word for toboggan, "Kjaelke".
Approximately 30 km (20 mi) away in the winter sports town of St. Moritz, British men had long enjoyed racing one another down the busy, winding streets of the town, causing an uproar among citizens because of the danger to pedestrians and visiting tourists. In 1884, Major William Bulpett, with the backing of winter sports pioneer and
hotel owner , constructed , the first sledding track of its kind in St. Moritz. The track ran three-quarters of a mile from St. Moritz to
and contained ten turns still used today. When the
were held at St. Moritz in
and , the Cresta Run was included in the program, marking the only two times skeleton was included as an Olympic event before its permanent addition in 2002 to the Winter Games.
In the 1887 Grand National competition in St. Moritz, a Mr. Cornish introduced the now-traditional head-first position, a trend that was in full force by the 1890 Grand National.
Until 1905, skeleton was practiced mainly in S however, in 1905,
held its first skeleton competition in , . This opened the door to other national skeleton competitions including the
championship held the following year. In 1908 and 1910, skeleton competitions were held in the . As the popularity of the sport grew, skeleton evolved into the sport recognized today. In 1892, the sled was transformed by L. P. Child, an Englishman. The newly designed bare-bones sled resembled a human skeleton, and the sport adopted its modern name of skeleton, though it is still recognized as tobogganing in many countries.
In 1923, the
(FIBT) was established as the governing body of the sport. Soon afterward, in 1926, the
declared bobsleigh and skeleton as Olympic sports and adopted the rules of the St. Moritz run as the officially recognized Olympic rules. It was not until 2002, however, that skeleton itself was added to the Olympic program with the
in , . In 2015, the FIBT was renamed the International Bobsleigh & Skeleton Federation (IBSF), and the Congress of the IBSF adopted its current governing statutes in 2016.
Popularity in the sport has grown since the 2002 Winter Olympics and now includes participation by some countries that do not have or cannot have a track because of climate, terrain or monetary limitations. Athletes from such countries as , , , , , , , , , and even the
have become involved with the sport in recent years. The IBSF operates an support program for "emerging nations", which provides travel, coaching, and equipment funding assistance to countries which have neither a track nor three qualified pilots in three IBSF in 2017, 20 national federations qualified for financial support in men's skeleton, and 11 qualified in women's skeleton.
competing in the
at Lake Placid in November 2017
The IBSF organizes four competitive circuits for international skeleton competition, in three tiers: two Continental Cups, the Intercontinental Cup (ICC), and the top level . Each athlete receives points based on their results and the level of the competition, which are used to determine both their rankings on each circuit they race in and also an overall ranking across all four circuits.
National federations are assigned athlete quota spots in the higher levels according to the overall rankings of their individual athletes during the previous season, but are free to send any qualified athlete to a competition in which they have available quota. However, individual athletes' discipline rankings are used to determine the start order for the first heat of each race: the track becomes less smooth after each successive run, so earlier starts are more desirable. In the second (fourth at the World Championships and Winter Olympics) heat, the competitors start in reverse order of their ranking after the previous heat. (At four-heat races, start order in heats two and three is in ascending order of combined time from the prior heats.)
In addition to the four race series, the IBSF also organizes World Championships, which are held at the end of every sliding season except when the
are held, and a Junior World Championships (open to athletes aged 23 and under) which are held annually without regard to the Olympics. One race each World Cup season is also designated the European Championship. The IBSF cooperates with the International Olympic Committee to supervise the skeleton races at the Olympic Winter Games, and the IBSF ranking system is used to determine the National Olympic Committees' athlete quota allocations.
On all of the regular competitive circuits, the race days are preceded by three or four days of pre-race training to allow athletes to learn the intricacies of each track, and each athlete must complete a certain number of successful training runs to be eligible to compete. Normally, if the same competition also includes bobsleigh races, the skeleton races will be held first, as the heavier bobsleighs do more damage to the track.
The two Continental Cup series are the Europe Cup (also called "Europa Cup" and "European Cup") and the North American Cup. Both series are open to athletes from all participating nations, but with some restrictions: the top 15 athletes in combined ranking are not permitted to race in the Continental Cups, and athletes are not permitted to race unless their team has filled all of its assigned quota sports in the World Cup. In addition, teams are limited to four athletes on their home continent and two athletes on the other continent. (For the purposes of this restriction, African teams are considered to be home on the Europe Cup and Asian, Oceanian, and South American teams are home on the North American Cup.)
As the bottom level of international skeleton competition, race results in the Continental Cups are assigned the lowest point values for ranking, with a first-place finish being with 75 points (compared to 120 points for the Intercontinental Cup and 225 points for the World Cup). Only the top 30 athletes re 30th place is worth 1 point. However, two races are generally held in each discipline on a single race weekend, allowing consistently competitive athletes to earn a higher ranking than if they went to a single World Cup race and finished poorly.
The Intercontinental Cup (ICC) was introduced as an intermediate level between the Continental Cups and the World C a first-place finish is worth 120 points in the IBSF ranking (vs. 225 points for a World Cup win). Teams with three athletes in the top 60 (top 45 for women) of the IBSF overall ranking for the previous year may send three athletes (not necessarily the same ones) to each ICC teams with two athletes in the top 75 (top 60 for women) and all other teams may send one athlete each. In order to be eligible to race in the ICC, athletes must have received a ranking in at least five IBSF competitions at three different tracks in the previous two years.
The World Cup is the top level of international skeleton competition, and has the most stringent team quotas, with no teams receiving an automatic entry. To qualify, a team must have placed at least one athlete in the top 60 of the overall ranking table (top 45 for women); teams with two athletes in the top 50 (top 35 for women) receive two quota spots, and teams with three athletes in the top 30 (top 25 for women) receive three. The same athlete experience requirements as apply to the ICC also apply to the World Cup. At the end of the World Cup season, the man and woman with the highest ranking, considering only points earned in World Cup races, are given a trophy known as the "Crystal Globe".
One World Cup race a year may be designated as a continental championship for the continent on which it is held. This championship is a "paper" race, based only on the times in the regularly scheduled World Cup event, with the athletes representing a different continent excluded. Currently, this is done only in E the 2017/18 European Championship races were the World Cup races held on 15 December 2017 at , . The current European champions are
of Latvia and
of Russia.
In non-Olympic years, a national federation volunteers to organize the (Senior) World Championships (for both bobsleigh and skeleton), which are open to all athletes meeting the experience requirements that apply to the World Cup and the ICC (including junior athletes). The quota system for the Senior World Championships is the same as for the World Cup, except that all national federations are entitled to send one athlete. The defending Junior World Champion in each discipline also receives an automatic entry. Unlike all other IBSF-sponsored races, the World Championships use a two-day, four-heat format, with rankings determined by total time for all four heats.
The 2016/17 World Championships were held at
in , 24–26 February 2017.
of Latvia won the men's competition and
of Germany won the women's competition. Because 2018 was an Olympic year, no World Championships were held for the 2017/18 season.
The Junior World Championships are held every year, but are scheduled to avoid conflict with the Olympics and the Senior World Championships. Junior athletes are those who are under 23 years of age, or who turn 23 at some point during the competitive season. All countries are entitled to send up to three athletes to the Junior World Championships, subject to the requirement that each entrant must have finished at least three IBSF sanctioned competitions on at least two tracks in the previous two years.
The 2017–18 Junior World Championships were held on 25 January 2018 in , , and the winners were
of Germany and
of Russia.
The skeleton event in the Winter Olympics uses the same two-day, four-heat format as the World Championships, but team quotas are significantly smaller. The International Olympic Committee assigns athlete quotas to national Olympic committees in cooperation with the IBSF and using the IBSF ranking system to det 20 women and 30 men competed at the
in Pyeongchang, Korea, with one automatic quota going to the host country (Korea) for each gender. For men, three countries received three quota spots each, six were allocated two spots, for women, two countries received three spots, four got two, and two got one. The ranking of the countries for quota assignment was based on their third-highest, second-highest, or highest ranked athlete in total IBSF ranking over the qualification period. In addition, three quota spots are reserved for countries whose continent did not receive any representation based on this assignment procedure.
National Olympic Committees may send athletes other than the ones whose rankings earned the quota spot, but the athletes chosen must be ranked in the top 60 (for men) or top 45 (for women) on the IBSF list and meet similar experience requirements to those that apply to the World Cup. However, IBSF rule 4.1 provides that, for the purposes of determining the top 60 (or top 45) qualification, lower-ranking athletes from countries which have already received a full quota are "cleaned" from the list before an athlete's ordinal ranking is determined This had the effect of allowing continental representatives for Africa into the 2018 games, as they would otherwise have been too low on the ranking list to qualify (notably, Nigerian slider
was ranked 74th before cleaning, but was in the top 45 after application of rule 4.1).
The accessibility of skeleton to
may have been the catalyst for its upswing in popularity. Most notably, , a fruit and vegetable merchant from , Switzerland, took Olympic gold at the 1948 event. With the advent of the first artificially refrigerated track in 1969 at /, , athletes are currently able to practice the sport regardless of weather conditions. The sport is also promoted by skeleton officials as a gateway sport to “train young, aspiring athletes…for their future career in bobsleigh.”
“The ‘toboggans’ used in
at the end of the 19th century were inspired by Canadian/Indian sleds used for transport”. Various additions and redesigning efforts by athletes have led to the skeleton sleds used today. In 1892, L. P. Child introduced the “America”, a new metal sled that revolutionized skeleton as a sport. The stripped-down design provided a compact sled with metal runners, and the design caught on quickly. In 1902, Arden Bott added a sliding seat to help athletes shift their weight forward and backward, a feature that is no longer included on modern sleds.
In 2010, the FIBT restricted the materials with which skeleton sleds are permitted to be made. Sled frames must be made of steel and may not include steering or braking mechanisms. The base plate, however, may be made of plastics. The handles and bumpers found along the sides of the sled help secure the athlete during a run.
Further specifications are included in the FIBT ruling regarding sled dimensions:
Maximum combined weight
(athlete + sled)
sled weight
115 kg (253.5 lb)
43 kg (94.8 lb)
 92 kg (202.8 lb)
35 kg (77.2 lb)
Some athletes opt to attach ballasts if the combined weight of athlete and sled falls below the maximum combined weight. These ballasts may only be added to the sled, not the rider.
Dimensions:
Length: 800–1,200 mm (31.5–47.2 in)
Height: 80–200 mm (3.1–7.9 in)
Distance between runners: 340–380 mm (13.4–15.0 in)
alpine racing helmet with chin guard, or a skeleton-specific helmet
skin-tight racing
made of uncoated textile material
spiked shoes, similar to
or face shields
optional elbow and shoulder pads under their suits
Organization
Description
Located in , , home of the . Offers racing and tuition. Has produced international-level athletes.
Bavarian Skeleton Club
Established in 1969 in , Germany, and headed by Senator Hans Riedmayer and Max Probst (himself a skeleton bob engineer), the club was important in organizing some of the first national and international skeleton events in , , and .
The Official Brazilian Bob Skeleton organization was established in 1996 in . Their website includes a great deal of information regarding the sport, its history, events, photographs, news and updates on athletes and the sport.
The Official British Bob Skeleton organization whose members include both athletes and fans. Their website includes a great deal of information regarding the sport, its history, events, photographs, news and updates on athletes and the sport.
Established in 1923, the FIBT is the official governing body for the sport.
St. Moritz Tobogganing Club
A private club founded in 1887 by Major Bulpetts of St. Moritz. Membership is selected from applicants on their “Supplementary List”. St. Moritz is the birthplace of the sport.
Current Olympic champion:
  (KOR)
  (OAR)
  (GBR)
Current Olympic champion:
  (GBR)
  (GER)
  (GBR)
Encyclopaedia Britannica, .
. Shape.com. 23 January .
Nelson, Dustin (19 February 2018). . Thrillist.com 2018.
. Archived from
on 9 December .
. Fibt.com. 2 October 1999. Archived from
on 14 February .
"Skeleton Sledding". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2007.
(PDF). International Bobsleigh & Skeleton Federation. 12 June 2016.
Pengilly, Adam (29 September 2017).
(PDF). International Bobsleigh & Skeleton Federation.
(PDF). International Bobsleigh & Skeleton Federation. September 2017.
. International Bobsleigh and Skeleton Federation. 15 December 2017.
. International Bobsleigh and Skeleton Federation. 15 December 2017.
. International Bobsleigh & Skeleton Federation. 26 February 2017.
. International Bobsleigh & Skeleton Federation. 25 February 2017.
(Press release). International Bobsleigh and Skeleton Federation. 25 January 2018.
(PDF). International Bobsleigh & Skeleton Federation. 17 May 2016.
. International Bobsleigh and Skeleton Federation.
"Skeleton, in winter sports". The Columbia Encyclopedia. Columbia University Press. 2004.
(pdf). 2015.
. Cbdg.org.br 2018.
. Cresta-run.com 2018.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to .
World governing body.
Governing body for the sports of bobsled and skeleton in the USA.
Governing body for the sports of bobsled and skeleton in Canada.
The Provincial governing body for the sport of Skeleton in Alberta.
Introductory site about the sport, from a participant.
, The Vancouver 2010 Olympic Sliding Sports Pick 6 Pool selection page.
Winter sliding sports
: Hidden categories:如何彻底删除skeleton登陆器，我不想要了。。我是从同学那拷来的wow。他是很久以前安装的skeleton_百度知道
如何彻底删除skeleton登陆器，我不想要了。。我是从同学那拷来的wow。他是很久以前安装的skeleton
如何彻底删除skeleton登陆器，我不想要了。。我是从同学那拷来的wow。他是很久以前安装的skeleton。我现在玩wow进不去新三本。。一进新三本就会程序报错。已经修复了WOW不下三遍。只求彻底删除，重新下载因为太大，所以不考虑。
This application has encountered a critical error:ERROR #134 (0x) Fatal ConditionProgram: D:\World of Warcraft\Wow.exeCMap::LoadWdt() failed World\Maps\IcecrownCitadel5Man\IcecrownCitadel5Man.wdt
我有更好的答案
首先要知道，安装skeleton，是为了改模型以后能正常登陆WOW所以你有这个，必然是WOW文件里模型文件改动过了找个没改过模型的朋友把原版patch系列全拷过来然后覆盖吧
采纳率：25%
直接删除skeleton就可以了通过双击wow.exe登陆游戏如果说你进新三本依旧出毛病，那就需要把你报错的内容截图发上来分析一下不要总怪罪在skeleton上
我没有怪它，我觉得这个东西不错。但是现在登不上。
国服和谐登陆器和skeleton都在用的话，就有可能出这个问题，还是将就用国服的和谐登陆器把一直用一个就不会出问题
直接删除skeleton就可以了通过双击wow.exe登陆游戏
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The skeleton is the body part that forms the supporting structure of an . There are several different skeletal types: the , which is the stable outer shell of an organism, the , which forms the support structure inside the body, the , and the . The term comes from
σκελετ??(skeletós), meaning 'dried up'.
There are two major types of skeletons: solid and fluid. Solid skeletons can be internal, called an , or external, called an , and may be further classified as pliant (elastic/movable) or rigid (hard/non-movable). Fluid skeletons are always internal.
are external, an they enclose and protect the soft tissues and organs of the body. Some kinds of exoskeletons undergo periodic
as the animal grows, as is the case in many
The exoskeleton of insects is not only a form of protection, but also serves as a surface for muscle attachment, as a watertight protection against drying, and as a sense organ to interact with the environment. The
of mollusks also performs all of the same functions, except that in most cases it does not contain sense organs.
An external skeleton can be quite heavy in relation to the overall mass of an animal, so on land, organisms that have an exoskeleton are mostly relatively small. Somewhat larger aquatic animals can support an exoskeleton because weight is less of a consideration underwater. The , a species of extremely large saltwater clam in the Pacific Ocean, has a shell that is massive in both size and weight.
is a species of sea snail with a very large shell.
skeleton on display at , .
is the internal support structure of an , composed of
and is typical of . Endoskeletons vary in complexity from functioning purely for support (as in the case of ), to serving as an attachment site for muscles and a mechanism for transmitting muscular forces. A true endoskeleton is derived from
tissue. Such a skeleton is present in
Pliant skeletons are thus, when
is applied to the skeletal structure, it deforms and then reverts to its original shape. This skeletal structure is used in some invertebrates, for instance in the
such as . Pliant skeletons are beneficial because only
contractions are needed
upon muscle relaxation, the skeleton will return to its original shape.
is one material that a pliant skeleton may be composed of, but most pliant skeletons are formed from a mixture of , , and water. For additional structure or protection, pliant skeletons may be supported by rigid skeletons. Organisms that have pliant skeletons typically live in water, which supports body structure in the absence of a rigid skeleton.
Rigid skeletons are not capable of movement when stressed, creating a strong support system most common in . Such a skeleton type used by animals that live in water are more for protection (such as
shells) or for fast-moving animals that require additional support of musculature needed for swimming through water. Rigid skeletons are formed from materials including
(in arthropods),
compounds such as
The cytoskeleton (gr. kytos = cell) is used to stabilize and preserve the form of the cells. It is a dynamic structure that maintains cell shape, protects the cell, enables cellular motion (using structures such as ,
and ), and plays important roles in both intracellular transport (the movement of
and , for example) and cellular division.
A hydrostatic skeleton is a semi-rigid, soft tissue structure filled with liquid under pressure, surrounded by muscles. Longitudinal and circular muscles around their body sectors allow movement by alternate lengthening and contractions along their lengths. A common example of this is the .
The endoskeletons of echinoderms and some other soft-bodied
a a body cavity the
is filled with
and the pressure from this fluid acts together with the surrounding muscles to change the organism's shape and produce movement.
The skeleton of
consists of microscopic
include 90% of all species of . Their "skeletons" are made of
consisting of fibers of the protein , the mineral , or both. Where spicules of silica are present, they have a different shape from those in the otherwise similar .
The skeleton of the , which include, among other things, the , is composed of
and a small amount of . It lies below the
and is within cell clusters of frame-forming cells. This structure formed is porous and therefore firm and at the same time light. It coalesces into small
ossicles (bony plates), which can grow in all directions and thus can replace the loss of a body part. Connected by joints, the individual skeletal parts can be moved by the muscles.
Pithecometra: From 's
, the compared skeletons of apes to humans.
In most , the main skeletal component is referred to as . These bones compose a unique skeletal system for each type of animal. Another important component is
which in mammals is found mainly in the joint areas. In other animals, such as the cartilaginous fishes, which include the , the skeleton is composed entirely of cartilage. The
pattern of the skeleton is present in all
(mammals, birds, fish, reptiles and amphibians) with basic units being repeated. This segmental pattern is particularly evident in the vertebral column and the ribcage.
Bones in addition to supporting the body also serve, at the cellular level, as calcium and phosphate storage.
The skeleton, which forms the support structure inside the
is either made of
as in the (), or bones as in the (). The main skeletal element is the vertebral column, composed of articulating vertebrae which are lightweight yet strong. The ribs attach to the spine and there are no limbs or limb girdles. They are supported only by the muscles. The main external features of the fish, the , are composed of either bony or soft spines called rays, which with the exception of the caudal fin (tail fin), have no direct connection with the spine. They are supported by the muscles which compose the main part of the trunk.
The bird skeleton is highly
for . It is extremely lightweight, yet still strong enough to withstand the
of taking off, flying, and landing. One key adaptation is the fusing of
into single , such as the . Because of this, birds usually have a smaller number of bones than other terrestrial vertebrates. Birds also lack teeth or even a true , instead having evolved a , which is far more lightweight. The beaks of many baby birds have a projection called an , which facilitates their exit from the amniotic egg.
To facilitate the movement of
in water, the hind legs were either lost altogether, as in the
and , or united in a single
(seals). In the whale, the
are typically fused, an adaptation trading flexibility for stability during swimming.
Study of Skeletons, c. 1510, by
The human skeleton consists of both fused and individual
supported and supplemented by , ,
and . It serves as a scaffold which supports organs, anchors muscles, and protects organs such as the , ,
and . Although the teeth do not consist of tissue commonly found in bones, the teeth are usually considered as members of the skeletal system. The biggest bone in the body is the
in the upper leg, and the smallest is the
bone in the . In an adult, the skeleton comprises around 14% of the total body weight, and half of this weight is water.
Fused bones include those of the
and the . Not all bones are interconnected directly: There are three bones in each
called the
that articulate only with each other. The , which is located in the neck and serves as the point of attachment for the , does not articulate with any other bones in the body, being supported by muscles and ligaments.
There are 206 bones in the adult human skeleton, although this number depends on whether the pelvic bones (the
on each side) are counted as one or three bones on each side (ilium, ischium, and pubis), whether the coccyx or tail bone is counted as one or four separate bones, and does not count the variable
between skull sutures. Similarly, the sacrum is usually counted as a single bone, rather than five fused vertebrae. There is also a variable number of small sesamoid bones, commonly found in tendons. The patella or kneecap on each side is an example of a larger sesamoid bone. The patellae are counted in the total, as they are constant. The number of bones varies between individuals and with age - newborn babies have over 270 bones some of which fuse together. These bones are organized into a longitudinal axis, the , to which the
is attached.
The human skeleton takes 20 years before it is fully developed. In many animals, the skeleton bones contain , which produces blood cells.
There exist several general differences between the male and female skeletons. The male skeleton, for example, is generally larger and heavier than the female skeleton. In the female skeleton, the bones of the skull are generally less angular. The female skeleton also has wider and shorter breastbone and slimmer wrists. There exist significant differences between the male and female pelvis which are related to the female's pregnancy and childbirth capabilities. The female pelvis is wider and shallower than the male pelvis. Female pelvises also have an enlarged pelvic outlet and a wider and more circular pelvic inlet. The angle between the pubic bones is known to be sharper in males, which results in a more circular, narrower, and near heart-shaped pelvis.
Bones are rigid
that form part of the
of . They function to move, support, and protect the various organs of the body, produce
and store . Bone tissue is a type of dense . Bones have a variety of shapes with a complex internal and external
they are also lightweight, yet strong and hard. One of the types of tissue that makes up bone tissue is
and this gives it rigidity and a
three-dimensional internal structure. Other types of tissue found in bones include ,
and . There are 206 bones in the adult human body and 270 in an .
the precursor to bone development is . Much of this substance is then replaced by bone during the second and third trimester, after the flesh such as muscle
forming the skeleton. Cartilage is a stiff and inflexible
found in many areas in the bodies of humans and other animals, including the joints between , the , the , the , the elbow, the knee, the ankle, the
and the . It is not as hard and rigid as
but is stiffer and less flexible than .
Cartilage is composed of specialized cells called chondrocytes that produce a large amount of
composed of Type II
(except Fibrocartilage which also contains type I collagen) fibers, abundant
rich in , and
fibers. Cartilage is classified in three types, ,
and , which differ in the relative amounts of these three main components.
Unlike other connective tissues, cartilage does not contain blood vessels. The chondrocytes are supplied by diffusion, helped by the pumping action generated by compression of the articular cartilage or flexion of the elastic cartilage. Thus, compared to other connective tissues, cartilage grows and repairs more slowly.
In , the skeleton is oftentimes seen as a fearful
and the . It is a popular motif in the holiday , as well as .
          
Wikimedia Commons has media related to .
Oxford Dictionary of English 2nd edition 2005
Barnes, Edward E.; Fox, Richard S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2003). Invertebrate zoology : a functional evolutionary approach (7. ed.). Belmont, Calif. [u.a.]: Thomson, Brooks/Cole.  .
Pechenik, Jan A. (2015). Biology of the Invertebrates (Seventh ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Education.  .
Barnes, Robert D. (1982). Invertebrate Zoology. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 105–106.  .
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William W. Reynolds & William J. Karlotski (1977). "The Allometric Relationship of Skeleton Weight to Body Weight in Teleost Fishes: A Preliminary Comparison with Birds and Mammals". Copeia: 160–163. :.
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T?zeren, Ayd?n (2000). Human Body Dynamics: Classical Mechanics and Human Movement. Springer. pp. 6–10.  .
Balaban, Naomi (2008). The Handy Anatomy Answer Book. Visible Ink Press. p. 61.  .
Stein, Lisa (2007). Body The Complete Human: How It Grows, How It Works, And How to Keep It Healthy And Strong. National Geographic Society. p. 73.  .
Steele, D. G Claud A. Bramblett (1988). The Anatomy and Biology of the Human Skeleton. Texas A&M University Press. p. 4.  .
Schmiedeler, E Mary Rosa McDonough (1934). Parent and Child: An Introductory Study of Parent Education. D. Appleton-Century. p. 31.
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