Muv-Luv-我们的文明，我们的战争（Our civilization, our war）_muv同人吧_百度贴吧
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Muv-Luv-我们的文明，我们的战争（Our civilization, our war）
好了说了这么久的背景现在开始挖坑。下面第一大章节地球往事篇正式开始
随后会放制作过程
此帖对国内两位新生代男...
一年一届的中国金鸡百花...
@丨周慧敏丨 大声告诉...
【ID】腐海无涯不回头 ...
万众期待的第33届大众百...
　　日，乔...
其实我觉得学历也就只有...
先总结: 上世纪九十年代...
最近微微一笑很倾城出来...
据说还要打遍全中国的初...
贯彻一贯拆开了、嚼烂了...
你跟女神之间就差一台自 拍神器！
前言——星空是对我们最终的流放,光年是对家园思念的丈量,迷途乃无望,何处是家园...轻缓的键盘声不断的从木屋中飘出，时而轻快时而沉重诉说着什么。
木质的小木屋外一阵微风拂过，欢快的脚步声徐徐而来。木屋的大门在嘎吱声中轻轻的打开，一个金发小女孩从后面串了出来。木屋的主人回头看着小女孩，脸上浮现出幸福的笑容。随之手中的工作也停了下来。
“珍妮，怎么突然跑到这里来了。”
“珍妮做了一个好看的想让爸爸看看。似乎打扰到了爸爸做事了。”看着转身父亲，小女孩带着一丝沮丧。
“珍妮，爸爸了写一段故事，一段你出生前人类的往事。当然更重的是珍妮的不是么。”木屋男子将小女儿抱起转身走出么屋外，而屋外男子的妻子正微笑的等待着父女。旁边七彩小风车正吱吱的旋转着，阳光的存托下好一阵绚丽夺目。
自1979年3月以来，BETA巢穴开始西进袭击。波兰军队联合军为主力谋求抗争，终因不敌BETA压倒性的物量，临冬降至国土已有六成在BETA压制下。面对国土大面积丢失，波兰政府开始了疏散计划——向后方同盟东德撤离平民。然而事与愿违华沙条约军的败退，导致政府沦落至BETA手中。随之带来的是数以万计的平民丧生，面对如此惨败，残存的军队也费尽心思的挽救国土上的平民。
日 共和国地区甘道基地。
金属巨人掀起膨大的灰土掉落在跑道上，关节处时不时溅落的火花诉说战争的残酷。四周等待一时的整备人员迅速的围了上去，老练的将金属巨人战术机的前置装甲打开。将已经没法动弹的卫士迅速挪出。一个头上绑着绷带似乎是头的人探头看了看卫士的伤势，摇了摇头挥手示意救护班将其带走。
接下来他们要做的就是将这架战术机上宝贵的零件拆下，给还能用的战术机进行后勤维护。高强度的战斗带来的是巨大后勤压力，加上漫长的补给线。维护班的战士也只能咬牙深入BETA复地寻找残骸，东拼西凑的维护这个看似希望的战术机。
在场停留的十几架运输直升机已是位数不多的手段，负载着四处缠着染血绷带的受伤者。之所以没有不能走动的重伤员，原因也只有一个BETA。
又是一阵战术机特有的跳跃单元的轰鸣声，一个中队规模的战术机开始降落。面对一副惨样的基地，不免的激起这帮心智不成熟卫士的窃窃私语。面对BETA的威胁也被迫的一再降低征兵年龄，卫士的培训也是达到驾驶的要求就送上战场。随之带来的心理问题也被选择性的忽略，老兵的流逝新兵的不稳定已是波兰的军队如今的状况。
“看，那个...那是什么，西尔维，难民营？好像不是...?”卡亚·扎荣茨少尉，带着困惑，恐怖的声音窃窃私语道。
通信窗口里显示出的黑发女子微微颤动了一下。
卡亚所看的地方，与基地邻接的空地上许多草草搭建的帐篷和活动板房边上，难民们裹着破布抵御寒冷的侵袭。任何人那种情景下第一反应只能认为那是难民营。
卡亚按下了控制台上的按钮，随之视网膜中略微熟悉的面孔浮现在脑海中。“那是...老板娘，那条街上的人吧?为什么会在这里......”
“市区已经处于饱和状态了。”驾驶舱中的黑发女子伊莱娜·马力诺夫斯基少尉回答了卡亚的疑问。
“原本作为城市的人口稠密地区，加上许多逃难的人潮水一般的涌进来，人口已经是之前的2倍...或许还不止这个数吧。剩下的人大概是被命令从市区立即退避，却无处可去的被集合到一起了”伊莱娜将自己知晓的东西慢慢得说了出来。
“为什么这里的人会犯这么简单的错误。市区已经让BETA渗透进来了，不让它们靠近军队的后勤货物。呆在附近的人们就经常伴随着生命危险。”卡亚义正言辞的说道，军队高层犯这样的错误简直是不可饶恕的事情。
“怎么会......”正准备离开战术机的西尔维娅·克沙辛思卡少尉听着同伴的话语，看着远方的安置区问道。
“现在，还好突击级出现频率不高，市区至少面子上保住了，不过......”伊莱娜停下了后面的话语。是的，身为政委的她。带着自己和小队来到这里，不是为了营救这条街道里被BETA包围的市民们。而是因为他们接到了防卫这条街的命令。就在那时，从天上开始落下无数的白色结晶。
“雪……?”已经在跑道上的西尔维娅抬头看看天空。
“冬天...到底还是来了啊......”从后面传来了卡亚快要哭泣的声音。对于已经物资缺乏的并不是什么好消息，哪怕残存的政府不断的为着难民的生路奔波。缺乏有效御寒手段的平民依旧倒在了西进的路上，成为一堆堆冰冷的数字。
“我，能活下来，走出这条街吗......”想到这里西尔维娅身体发起抖来。看着好友发抖的身体，伊莱娜悄悄的从后面抱住西尔维娅和卡亚。
“好久没有尝尝老板娘的手艺了。久违的美食哦！走吧，难得的休息时间。”拉着两人的伊莱娜向着旁边的整备室走去，那儿是为卫士临时准备的休息区。
“可是伊莱娜......”卡亚似乎想提醒伊莱娜，不应该浪费宝贵的休息时间。
“知道么？卡亚。我们的任务本来就是引导难民撤离，守卫这片城市。但是那边的难民区，有多少人？谁又能给予我们情报。了解难民的情报，和我们接下来要做的一点也不差。那么卡亚同志、西尔维娅同志，请跟我去难民区执行任务。”伊莱娜一脸严肃的说道。
“是，政委大人。”西尔维娅、卡亚无奈的看着伊莱娜。
“那还等着干嘛，快去换便服！”双手将站在门口的二人推入，伊莱娜随后便走了进去。没多久欢乐的声音便从整备室中传出，而屋外依旧是大雪纷飞。
这是那个时间段的同人
黑标之前波兰沦陷前的吗，古兔子男主叫什么？
居然是和西尔维娅一起开局？！！支持
百年之后，山河犹在，国泰民安　　　--my life for meiya！
Summer in the hills 群山盛夏之时 Those hazy days I do remember 那雾蒙蒙的日子仍历历在目 We were running still 我们坚定的奔跑 Had the whole world at our feet 踏遍整个天下 Watching seasons change 见证季节更替 Our roads were lined with adventure 我们走过的路便是传奇 Mountains in the way 群山峻岭，艰难险阻 Couldn't keep us from the sea 挡不住我们对星辰大海的希冀 Here we stand open arms 现在我们的双臂敞开 This is home where we are 这里就是我们的家园 Ever strong in the world that we made 我们创造的世界从未如此坚韧 I still hear you in the breeze 我仍可以听见你在微风中的气息 See your shadows in the trees 看见你在树荫下的身影 Holding on memories never change 坚持下去，记忆永不褪色
灵魂囚禁在命运不可抗力的枷锁四散空洞眼眸铸就了冷漠与隔阂时代的起源来自谁埋下的因果尚锐利的轮廓 凝视着别闪躲重塑的自我 扭曲对与错星辰已陨殁 剩微芒闪烁分秒停在此刻 吞噬或存活无惧 挣脱擦拭发烫信仰 伴随痛楚 跨越时间屏障隐匿的情绪 却在瞬间肆意冲撞舍弃繁重捆绑 不屑回望 曾经狼狈模样还能否紧握 手心残余梦想未知的地方 谁点亮 被人遗忘的曙光拾起沿途散落的骄傲 汇成希望罪恶与真理不断纠缠每一寸魂魄屏住呼吸倾听被喧嚣掩盖的脉搏谁的呢喃依旧孤独响彻心脏角落未传递的诉说 逝去前别沉默无休止争斗 燃烧尽火种帷幕的鲜红 用血液涂抹笑对一切后果 哪怕是灾祸也不 退缩亲手终结彷徨 用力宣告 光明降临彼方谁指引迷途 通往正义那个方向孕育新生理想 打破虚妄 祭奠年少轻狂滑落的泪水 柔化我脸庞遥远的地方 谁守望 明灭未歇的星光漫长岁月雕琢的荣耀 永不消亡擦拭发烫信仰 伴随痛楚 跨越时间屏障隐匿的情绪 却在瞬间肆意冲撞舍弃繁重捆绑 不屑回望 曾经狼狈模样还能否紧握 手心残余梦想遥远的地方 谁守望 明灭未歇的星光漫长岁月雕琢的荣耀 永不消亡
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保存至快速回贴Related subjects: &#59; SOS Children works in China. For more information see
Background to the schools WikipediaSOS Children have produced a selection of wikipedia articles for schools since 2005. SOS Children has looked after children in Africa for forty years. Can you ?
People's Republic of China
China ( /ˈtʃaɪnə/) is seen variously as an ancient
extending over a large area in
East Asia, a
nation and/or a
multinational entity.
With nearly 4,000 years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest civilizations. Prior to the 19th century, it possessed one of the most advanced societies and ec but through successive
dynasties it then missed the
and began to decline. In the 19th and 20th century,
imperialism, internal weakness and
civil wars damaged the country and its economy, and led to the overthrow of
imperial rule.
In 1949, after major combat ended in the
Chinese Civil War,
two states calling themselves "China" emerged:
(PRC), established in 1949, commonly known as China, has control over
mainland China and the largely self-governing territories of
(since 1997) and
(since 1999).
(ROC) established in 1912 in mainland China, now commonly known as Taiwan, has control over the islands of ,
Matsu, the
Pratas island group, and a few other
outlying islands.
In the 1950s, change to economic policies in Taiwan transformed the island into a technology-oriented industrialized developed economy after a period of high growth rates and rapid industrialization. In mainland China, in the 1970s, reforms known as the
Four Modernizations improved agriculture, industry, technology and defense, vastly raising
living standards and making the PRC one of the
great powers.
Historically, China's
cultural sphere has extended across East Asia as a whole, with
Chinese religion,
customs, and
writing systems being adopted to varying degrees by neighbors such as ,
and . Through its history, China was the source of
many major inventions. It has also one of the world's oldest
written language systems. The first evidence of human presence in the region was found at the
Zhoukoudian cave. It is one of the earliest known specimens of , now commonly known as the
Peking Man, estimated to have lived from 300,000 to 780,000 years ago.
traditional (top) and
simplified (bottom) characters for "China" in . The first character means "middle" or "centre", and the second character means "country".
The word "China" is derived from Cin (چین), a Persian name for China popularized in Europe by . The first recorded use in English dates from 1555. In early usage, "china" as a term for
porcelain was spelled differently from the name of the country, the two words being derived from separate Persian words. Both these words are derived from the
Cīna (चीन), used as a name for China as early as AD 150.
There are various scholarly theories regarding the origin of this word. The traditional theory, proposed in the 17th century by
Martin Martini, is that "China" is derived from "Qin" (秦, pronounced chin), the westernmost of the Chinese kingdoms during the
Zhou dynasty, or from the succeeding
(221 & 206 BC). In the
Hindu scriptures
Mahābhārata (5th century BC) and
Laws of Manu (2nd century BC), the Sanskrit word Cīna (चीन) is used to refer to a country located in the Tibeto-Burman borderlands east of . Another theory is that this word is derived from
Yelang, an ancient kingdom in what is now
Guizhou whose inhabitants referred to themselves as 'Zina'.
The official name of China changed with each
dynasty or with each new government, the imperial governments referred to themselves as the Empire of the Great , Empire of the Great
Ming, etc. However, the common name remained as Zhōnggu& ( simplified Chinese:
中国;
traditional Chinese:
中國, Mandarin pronunciation:& [tʂʊ́ŋkwɔ̌]) through dynastic changes. This translates traditionally as "Middle Kingdom," or as "central country."
The name Zhōnggu& first appeared in the
Classic of History (6th century BC), and was used to refer to the late
Zhou Dynasty, as they believed that they were the "centre of civilization," while peoples in the four cardinals were called
Eastern Yi,
Southern Man,
Western Rong and
Northern Di respectively. Some texts imply that "Zhōnggu&" was originally meant to refer to the capital of the sovereign, to differ from the capital of his vassals. The use of "Zhōnggu&" implied a claim of political legitimacy, and "Zhōnggu&" was often used by states who saw themselves as the sole legitimate successor to previous C for example, in the era of the , both the
Jin Dynasty and the Southern Song state claimed to be "Zhōnggu&."
Zhōnggu& was used as a common name for the
(Zhonghua Minguo) after its establishment in 1912. After the Communists took over control of China in 1949, they established the
(PRC). As a result, the PRC is now commonly known as "China" or "Zhōnggu&". The Republic of China nowadays is commonly known as "".
3 Sovereigns and 5 Emperors
Xia Dynasty
Shang Dynasty
Zhou Dynasty
& Western Zhou
& Eastern Zhou
&&& Spring and Autumn period
&&& Warring States period
221 BCE&206 BCE
Han Dynasty 206 BCE&220 CE
Western Han
Xin Dynasty
Eastern Han
Three Kingdoms 220&280
Jin Dynasty 265&420
Western Jin
16 Kingdoms304&439
Eastern Jin
Southern and Northern Dynasties420&589
Sui Dynasty 581&618
& ( Second Zhou 690&705)
5 Dynasties and 10 Kingdoms907&960
Liao Dynasty907&1125
Republic of China
People's Republic of China1949&present
Republic of China (Taiwan) 1949&present
was one of the earliest centers of human civilization. Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent
writing, the others being , the , the
Mesoamerican civilizations, the
of ancient , and .
Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest
hominids in China date from 250,000 to 2.24 million years ago. A cave in
Zhoukoudian (near present-day ) has fossils dated at somewhere between 300,000 to 780,000 years. The fossils are of
Peking Man, an example of
who used .
The earliest evidence of a fully modern human in China comes from
Liujiang County,
Guangxi, where a cranium has been found and dated at approximately 67,000 years old. Although much controversy persists over the dating of the Liujiang remains, a partial skeleton from Minatogawa in
Okinawa, Japan has been dated to 16,600 to 18,250 years old, so modern humans probably reached China before that time.
Jade deer ornament made during the first historic Chinese dynasty, the
Shang, 17th to 11th Century BC.
Chinese tradition names the first
Xia, but it was considered mythical until scientific excavations found early
Erlitou in
Henan Province in 1959. Archaeologists have since uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs in locations cited as Xia's in ancient historical texts, but it is impossible to verify that these remains are of the Xia without written records from the period.
Some of the thousands of life-size
Terracotta Warriors of the , ca. 210 BC.
The first Chinese dynasty that left historical records, the loosely feudal
Shang (Yin), settled along the
in eastern China from the 17th to the 11th century BC. The
Oracle bone script of the Shang Dynasty represent the oldest forms of Chinese writing found and the direct ancestor of modern
used throughout East Asia. The Shang were invaded from the west by the
Zhou, who ruled from the 12th to the 5th century BC, until their centralized authority was slowly eroded by feudal warlords. Many independent states eventually emerged out of the weakened Zhou state, and continually waged war with each other in the
Spring and Autumn period, only occasionally deferring to the Zhou king. By the time of the
Warring States period, there were seven powerful sovereign states, each with its own king, ministry and army.
The first unified Chinese state was established by
Qin state in 221 BC, who proclaimed himself as the "First Emperor" and created many reforms in the Empire, notably the forced standardization of the Chinese language and measurements. The
lasted only fifteen years, as its harsh
legalist and authoritarian policies soon led to widespread rebellion.
The subsequent
Han Dynasty ruled China between 206 BC and 220 AD, and created a lasting
Han cultural identity among its populace that extends to the present day. The Han Dynasty
expanded the empire's territory considerably with military campaigns reaching , ,
Central Asia, and also helped establish the
in Central Asia.
After Han's collapse, another period of disunion followed, including the highly chivalric period of the
Three Kingdoms. Independent Chinese states of this period such as
Wu opened diplomatic relations with Japan, introducing the Chinese writing system there. In 580 AD, China was reunited under the
Sui. However, the Sui Dynasty was short-lived after a failure in the
Goguryeo-Sui Wars (598&614) weakened it.
10th&11th century
Longquan celadon porcelain pieces from
Zhejiang province, during the .
Under the succeeding
dynasties, Chinese technology and culture reached its zenith. The Tang Empire was at its height of power until the middle of the 8th century, when the
An Shi Rebellion destroyed the prosperity of the empire. The Song dynasty was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese
polity to establish a permanent standing navy. Between the 10th and 11th centuries, the population of China doubled in size. This growth came about through expanded rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses.
Within its borders, the Northern Song Dynasty had a population of some 100 million people. The Song Dynasty was a culturally rich period for philosophy and the arts.
Landscape art and
were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity after the Tang Dynasty, and social elites gathered to view art, share their own, and trade precious artworks.
Philosophers such as
Cheng Yi and
Chu Hsi reinvigorated Confucianism with new commentary, infused
ideals, and emphasized a new organization of classic texts that brought about the core doctrine of
Neo-Confucianism.
Along the River During the Qingming Festival; daily life of people from the Song period at the capital, Bianjing, today's
In 1271, the
Mongol leader and fifth
Khagan of the
established the , with the last remnant of the Song Dynasty falling to the Yuan in 1279. Before the
Mongol invasion, Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 after the conquest was completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly 60 million people. A peasant named
Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Mongols in 1368 and founded the . Ming Dynasty thinkers such as
Wang Yangming would further critique and expand Neo-Confucianism with ideas of
individualism and innate morality that would have tremendous impact on later Japanese thought.
Chosun Korea also became a nominal vassal state of Ming China and adopted much of its Neo-Confucian bureaucratic structure.
Under the Ming Dynasty, China had another golden age, with one of the strongest navies in the world, a rich and prosperous economy and a flourishing of the arts and culture. It was during this period that
led explorations throughout the world, possibly reaching America. During the early Ming Dynasty China's capital was moved from
Nanjing to . In 1644 Beijing was sacked by a coalition of rebel forces led by
Li Zicheng, a minor Ming official turned leader of the peasant revolt. The last Ming Emperor
Chongzhen committed suicide when the city fell. The Manchu
then allied with
Wu Sangui and overthrew Li's short-lived
Shun Dynasty, and subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty.
The Qing Dynasty, which lasted until 1912, was the last dynasty in China. In the 19th century the Qing Dynasty adopted a defensive posture towards European
imperialism, even though it engaged in
imperialistic expansion into Central Asia. At this time China awoke to the significance of the rest of the world, the West in particular. As China opened up to foreign trade and missionary activity,
opium produced by
British India was forced onto Qing China. Two
Opium Wars with Britain weakened the Emperor's control. European imperialism proved to be disastrous for China:
Clipper ship
Celestial Empire
The Arrow War () [2nd Opium War] saw another disastrous defeat for China. The subsequent passing of the humiliating Treaty of Tianjin in 1856 and the Beijing Conventions of 1860 opened up more of the country to foreign penetrations and more ports for their vessels. Hong Kong was ceded over to the British. Thus, the "unequal treaties system" was established. Heavy indemnities had to be paid by China, and more territory and control were taken over by the foreigners.
The weakening of the Qing regime, and the apparent humiliation of the unequal treaties in the eyes of the Chinese people had several consequences. One consequence was the
Taiping Civil War, which lasted from 1851 to 1862. It was led by
Hong Xiuquan, who was partly influenced by an idiosyncratic interpretation of Christianity. Hong believed himself to be the son of God and the younger brother of Jesus. Although the Qing forces were eventually victorious, the civil war was one of the bloodiest in human history, costing at least 20 million lives (more than the total number of fatalities in the ), with some estimates of up to two hundred million. Other costly rebellions followed the Taiping Rebellion, such as the
Punti-Hakka Clan Wars (1855&67),
Nien Rebellion (),
Muslim Rebellion (1862&77),
Panthay Rebellion () and the Miao Rebellion (1854&73).
A corner tower of the
Forbidden C the palace was the residence for the imperial family from the reign of the
Yongle Emperor of the
in the 15th century until the fall of the
These rebellions resulted in an estimated loss of several million lives each and led to disastrous results for the economy and the countryside. The flow of British opium hastened the empire's decline. In the 19th century, the age of colonialism was at its height and the great
Chinese Diaspora began. About 35 million
overseas Chinese live in Southeast Asia today. The famine in 1876&79 claimed between 9 and 13 million lives in northern China. From 108 BC to 1911 AD, China experienced 1,828 famines, or one per year, somewhere in the empire.
While China was wracked by continuous war,
Meiji Japan succeeded in rapidly modernizing its military and set its sights on Korea and Manchuria. At the request of the Korean emperor, the Chinese government sent troops to aid in suppressing the
Tonghak Rebellion in 1894. However, Japan also sent troops to Korea, leading to the
First Sino-Japanese War, which resulted in Qing China's loss of influence in the
Korean Peninsula as well as the cession of
Following this series of defeats,
a reform plan for the empire to become a modern Meiji-style
was drafted by the
Emperor Guangxu in 1898, but was opposed and stopped by the
Empress Dowager Cixi, who placed Emperor Guangxu under house arrest in a coup d'&tat. Further destruction followed the ill-fated 1900
against westerners in .
By the early 20th century, mass civil disorder had begun, and calls for reform and revolution were heard across the country. The 38-year-old Emperor Guangxu died under house arrest on 14 November 1908, suspiciously just a day before Cixi's own death. With the throne empty, he was succeeded by Cixi's handpicked heir, his two year old nephew
Puyi, who became the Xuantong Emperor. Guangxu's consort, who became the
Empress Dowager Longyu. In another coup de'tat,
Yuan Shikai overthrew the last Qing emperor, and forced empress Dowager Longyu to sign the abdication decree as regent in 1912, ending two thousand years of imperial rule in China. She died, childless, in 1913.
Chiang Kai-shek at the founding of the
Whampoa Military Academy. Flags of the Republic of China and the Nationalist Party shown.
Map of Republic of China printed by Rand McNally & Co. in the year 1914.
On 1 January 1912, the
was established, heralding the end of the .
Kuomintang (the KMT or Nationalist Party) was proclaimed provisional president of the republic. However, the presidency was later given to
Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general, who had ensured the defection of the entire
Beiyang Army from the Qing Empire to the revolution. In 1915, Yuan proclaimed himself
Emperor of China but was forced to abdicate and return the
state to a republic when he realized it was an unpopular move, not only with the population but also with his own Beiyang Army and its commanders.
After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented, with an internationally recognized but virtually powerless national government seated in
(Beijing). Warlords in various regions exercised actual control over their respective territories. In the late 1920s, the
Kuomintang, under
Chiang Kai-shek, was able to reunify the country under its own control, moving the nation's capital to
Nanking (Nanjing) and implementing "political
tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's program for transforming China into a modern, democratic state. Effectively, political tutelage meant one-party rule by the Kuomintang.
Sino-Japanese War of
(part of ) forced an uneasy alliance between the
Nationalists and the
Communists as well as causing around 20 million Chinese civilian deaths. With the
surrender of Japan in 1945, China emerged victorious but financially drained. The continued distrust between the Nationalists and the Communists led to the resumption of the
Chinese Civil War. In 1947, constitutional rule was established, but because of the ongoing Civil War many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented in mainland China.
After its victory in the
Chinese Civil War, the
Communist Party of China (CPC) led by
gained control of most of Mainland China. On 1 October 1949, they established the People's Republic of China as a
Socialist State headed by a "Democratic Dictatorship" with the CPC as the ruling political party, thus, laying claim as the
successor state of the ROC. The central government of the
Chinese Nationalist Party led by
Chiang Kai-shek retreated to the island of
that it had administered at the end of World War II, and moved the ROC government there. Major armed hostilities ceased in 1950 but no peace treaty has been signed.
Beginning in the late 1970s, the Republic of China began the implementation of full, multi-party,
representative democracy in the territories still under its control (, and a number of smaller islands including
Quemoy and
Matsu). Today, the ROC has active political participation by all sectors of society. The main cleavage in ROC politics is the issue of eventual political unification with the Chinese mainland vs. formal independence of Taiwan.
proclaiming the establishment of the
After the Chinese Civil War, mainland China saw a dramatic improvement on life expectancy, leading to an explosion in population. A series of disruptive
socioeconomic movements started in the late 1950s with the
Great Leap Forward and continued in the 1960s with the
Cultural Revolution. The
Great Chinese Famine resulted in an estimated 30 to 36 million deaths. With the death of its first generation Communist Party leaders such as
Zhou Enlai, the PRC began implementing a series of political and economic reforms advocated by
Deng Xiaoping that eventually formed the foundation for mainland China's rapid economic development starting in the 1990s.
Post-1978 reforms in mainland China have led to some relaxation of control over many areas of society. However, the PRC government still has almost absolute control over politics, and it continually seeks to eradicate what it perceives as threats to the social, political and economic stability of the country. Examples include the fight against , jailing of
political opponents and
journalists, custody
regulation of the press, regulation of religion, and suppression of independence/secessionist movements. In 1989, the
Tiananmen Square were violently put to an end by the Chinese military after 15 days of martial law. In 1997,
was ceded to the PRC by the United Kingdom, and in 1999,
was handed over by .
Since 1949,
mainland China is administered by the &a one-party state under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party&while the island of
and surrounding islands are administered by the &a democratic multi-party state. After the founding of the People's Republic in 1949, both states claimed to be the sole legitimate ruler of all of China. After the Kuomintang retreat to
in 1949, the
had maintained official diplomatic relations with most states around the world, but by the 1970s, a shift had occurred in international diplomatic circles and the
gained the upper hand in international diplomatic relations and recognition count.
In 1971, under
UN resolution 2758, the representatives of Chiang Kai-shek to the
were expelled from the intergovernmental organization. With the expulsion of the representatives, and effectively the , the representatives of the
were invited to assume China's seat on the , the
councils and agencies. Later attempts by the
to rejoin the UN have either been blocked by the , which has veto power on the , or rejected by the
United Nations Secretariat or a
committee responsible for the General Assembly's agenda.
Since the relocation of its capital to Taiwan, the Republic of China has not formally renounced its claim to authority over all of China, nor has it changed its official maps, which include the
mainland and . Following the introduction of full democracy, and the electoral victory of the
Chen Shui-bian in the presidential elections, the ROC had adopted a policy of separating the state's identity from "China", while moving towards identifying the state as "Taiwan".
However, the ROC has not made any formal moves to change the name, flag, or national anthem of the state to reflect a Taiwanese identity due to the lack of consensus within Taiwan, pressure from the United States and the fear of invasion or military action from the People's Republic of China against the island. The Republic of China during the DPP years did not actively pursue its claims on mainland China or Mongolia. However, after having been elected as president, KMT's
Ma Ying-jeou asserted that, constitutionally, mainland China is part of the Republic of China. The People's Republic of China claims to have succeeded the Republic of China as the sole legitimate governing authority of all of China, which, from the official viewpoint of the People's Republic of China, includes the island of .
Over the last 50 years, both the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China have used diplomatic and economic means to compete for recognition in the international arena. Because most international, intergovernmental organizations observe the
One-China policy of the People's Republic of China, the PRC has been able to pressure organizations, such as the
International Olympic Committee, to refuse to officially recognize the Republic of China. Due to the One-China policy, states around the world are pressured to refuse, or to cut off diplomatic relations with the Republic of China. As a result,
23 U.N. member states currently maintain official diplomatic relations with the Republic of China, while the vast majority of U.N. member states maintain official diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China.
Territories occupied by different dynasties as well as modern political states throughout the history of China.
Top-level political divisions of China have altered as administrations changed. Top levels included
circuits and
provinces. Below that, there have been
prefectures,
subprefectures,
departments,
commanderies,
districts, and
counties. Recent divisions also include
prefecture-level cities,
county-level cities,
townships.
Most Chinese dynasties were based in the historical heartlands of China, known as
China proper. Various dynasties also
expanded into peripheral territories like
Inner Mongolia,
Manchuria,
Xinjiang, and . The
Manchu-established
and its successors, the ROC and the PRC, incorporated these territories into the Chinese empire.
Composite satellite photo.
Terrace rice fields in
Snowy mountains in
China ranges from mostly plateaus and mountains in the west to lower lands in the east. Principal rivers flow from west to east, including the
(central), the
(Yellow river, north-central), and the
(northeast), and sometimes toward the south (including the
Pearl River, , and ), with most Chinese rivers emptying into the .
In the east, along the shores of the
Yellow Sea and the
East China Sea there are extensive and densely populated
alluvial plains. On the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, grasslands can be seen. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges. In the central-east are the
deltas of China's two major rivers, the
and . Most of China's arable lands lie along these rivers, and they were the centers of China's major ancient civilizations. Other major rivers include the
Pearl River, ,
and . Yunnan Province is considered a part of the Greater Mekong Subregion, which also includes Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam.
Main geographic features and regions of China.
In the west, the north has a great alluvial plain, and the south has a vast
calcareous
tableland traversed by hill ranges of moderate elevation, and the , containing Earth's highest point, . The northwest also has high plateaus with more arid desert landscapes such as the
Takla-Makan and the
Gobi Desert, which has been expanding. During many dynasties, the southwestern border of China has been the high mountains and deep valleys of
Yunnan, which separate modern China from ,
Paleozoic formations of China, excepting only the upper part of the
system, are marine, while the
Mesozoic and
Tertiary deposits are
estuarine and freshwater, or else of terrestrial origin. Groups of volcanic cones occur in the Great Plain of north China. In the
Liaodong and
Shandong Peninsulas, there are
The climate of China varies greatly. The northern zone (containing Beijing) has summer daytime temperatures of more than 30 degrees Celsius and winters of Arctic severity. The central zone (containing ) has a temperate
continental climate with very hot summers and cold winters. The southern zone (containing ) has a
climate with very hot summers and mild winters.
Due to a prolonged
and poor agricultural practices, dust storms have become usual in the spring in China. Dust has blown to southern Mainland China and Taiwan, and has reached the West Coast of the United States. Water, erosion, and
have become important issues in China's relations with other countries.
Many analysts assert that China is one of the leading examples of
state capitalism in the 21st century.
Wang Yangming, a highly influential
Neo-Confucian
Chinese Opera ( Beijing Opera) performance in
of the historical character
Yang Guifei.
Confucianism was the official philosophy throughout most of 's history, and mastery of Confucian texts was the primary criterion for
entry into the imperial bureaucracy. China's traditional values were derived from various versions of . A number of more
authoritarian strains of thought have also been influential, such as
There was often conflict between the philosophies, e.g. the
Neo-Confucians believed
Legalism departed from the original spirit of Confucianism. Examinations and a
culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today. In recent years, a number of
New Confucians (not to be confused with Neo-Confucianism) have advocated that democratic ideals and human rights are quite compatible with traditional Confucian "Asian values".
With the rise of European economic and military power beginning in the mid-19th century, non-Chinese systems of social and political organization gained adherents in China. Some of these would-be reformers totally rejected China's cultural legacy, while others sought to combine the strengths of Chinese and European cultures. In essence, the history of 20th-century China is one of experimentation with new systems of social, political, and economic organization that would allow for the reintegration of the nation in the wake of dynastic collapse.
Chinese calligraphy by
Mi Fu, , ca. 1100 CE
A bamboo book copy of Sun Tzu's
The Art of War, a 20th century reprint of a
Qianlong imperial edition.
have had many variants and styles throughout Chinese history. Tens of thousands of ancient written documents are still extant, from
oracle bones to Qing edicts. This literary emphasis affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, e.g. the view that
calligraphy was a higher art form than painting or drama. Manuscripts of the Classics and religious texts (mainly , , and ) were handwritten by
ink brush.
Calligraphy later became commercialized, and works by famous artists became prized possessions.
Chinese litera the earliest classic work in Chinese, the
or "Book of Changes" dates to around 1000 BC. A flourishing of philosophy during the
Warring States Period produced such noteworthy works as Confucius's
Analects and 's . (See also: the
Chinese classics.) Dynastic histories were often written, beginning with
Sima Qian's seminal
Records of the Historian, which was written from 109 BC to 91 BC.
The Tang Dynasty witnessed a
poetic flowering, while the
Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature were written during the Ming and Qing Dynasties.
in the form of
movable type was developed during the . Academies of scholars sponsored by the empire were formed to comment on the classics in both printed and handwritten form. Royalty frequently participated in these discussions as well.
The Song Dynasty was also a period of great scientific literature, and saw the creation of works such as
Su Song's Xin Yixiang Fayao and
Shen Kuo's
Dream Pool Essays. There were also enormous works of historiography and large encyclopedias, such as
Sima Guang's
Zizhi Tongjian of 1084 AD or the
Four Great Books of Song fully compiled and edited by the 11th century.
For centuries, religious and social advancement in China could be achieved through high performance on the
imperial examinations. This led to the creation of a
meritocracy, although success was available only to males who could afford test preparation. Imperial examinations required applicants to write essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics. Those who passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known as jinshi, a highly esteemed socio-economic position.
Chinese philosophers, writers and poets were highly respected and played key roles in preserving and promoting the culture of the empire. Some classical scholars, however, were noted for their daring depictions of the lives of the common people, often to the displeasure of authorities.The Chinese invented numerous , such as the
zheng (zither with movable bridges),
(bridgeless zither),
sheng (free reed mouth organ), and
xiao (vertical flute) and adopted and developed others such the
erhu (alto fiddle or bowed lute) and
pipa (pear-shaped plucked lute), many of which later spread throughout
East Asia and
Southeast Asia, particularly to Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.
Ethnolinguistic map of the
Hundreds of
have existed in China throughout its history. The largest ethnic group in China by far is the
Han. This group, however, is internally diverse and can be further divided into smaller ethnic groups that share similar traits.
Over the last three millennia, many previously distinct ethnic groups in China have been
Sinicized into a Han identity, which over time dramatically expanded the size of the Han population. However, these assimilations were usually incomplete, and vestiges of indigenous language and culture still often remain in various regions of China. Because of this, many within the Han identity have maintained distinct linguistic and cultural traditions while still identifying as Han.
Several ethnicities have also dramatically shaped Han culture, e.g. the Manchurian clothing called the
qipao became the new "Chinese" fashion after the 17th century, replacing earlier Han styles of clothing such as the
Hanfu. The modern term
Chinese nation (Zhonghua Minzu) is now used to describe a notion of a Chinese nationality that transcends ethnic divisions.
Most languages in China belong to the
Sino-Tibetan language family, spoken by 29 ethnicities. There are also several major
linguistic groups within the
itself. The most spoken varieties are
Mandarin (spoken by over 70% of the population),
Yue (Cantonese),
Hakka. Non-Sinitic languages spoken widely by ethnic minorities include
Zhuang (Thai),
Mongolian,
Uyghur (Turkic),
Classical Chinese was the written standard in China for thousands of years, and allowed for written communication between speakers of various unintelligible languages and dialects in China.
Vernacular Chinese or baihua is the written standard based on the Mandarin dialect first popularized in Ming dynasty , and was adopted (with significant modifications) during the early 20th century as the national vernacular. Classical Chinese is still part of the high school curriculum and is thus intelligible to some degree to many Chinese.
Shang Dynasty
bronze script character for tian (天), "Sky" or "Heaven."
The "official" orthodox faith system held by most dynasties of China since at least the
Shang Dynasty (1766 BC) until the overthrow of the last dynasty (1911 AD) centered on the worship of
Shangdi ("Supreme God") or " Heaven" as an omnipotent force. This faith system pre-dated the development of
and the introduction of ,
It has features of
monotheism in that Heaven is seen as an omnipotent entity, endowed with personality but no corporeal form. From the writings of Confucius, we find that Confucius himself believed that Heaven cannot be deceived, Heaven guides people's lives and maintains a personal relationship with them, and that Heaven gives tasks for people to fulfill to teach them righteousness (yi, 義). However, this faith system was not truly monotheistic since other lesser gods and spirits, which varied with locality, were also worshiped along with Shangdi. Still, variants such as
Mohism approached high monotheism, teaching that the function of lesser gods and ancestral spirits is merely to carry out the will of Shangdi, which included observing "universal love" (jian'ai, 兼爱) and shunning
Worship of Shangdi and Heaven in ancient China includes the erection of shrines, the last and greatest being the
Temple of Heaven in Beijing, and the offering of prayers. The ruler of China in every Chinese dynasty would perform annual sacrificial rituals to Heaven, usually by slaughtering a bull as sacrifice. Although its popularity gradually diminished after the advent of Taoism and Buddhism, among other religions, its concepts remained in use throughout the pre-modern period and have been incorporated in later religions in China, including terminology used in Chinese Christianity.
A monk in the
Jade Buddha Temple, , China
is an indigenous religion of China and its beginnings are traditionally traced to the composition of 's
(The Book of Tao and Its Virtues) or to seminal works by
Zhang Daoling. The philosophy of Taoism is centered on " the way"; an understanding of which can be likened to recognizing the true nature of the universe. Taoism in its unorganized form is also considered a folk religion of China. More secular derivatives of Taoist ideas include
Feng Shui, Sun Tzu's
Art of War, and
acupuncture.
(618&907) sculpture of the
meditation.
Typical interior of a temple.
Buddhism in China was first introduced from India and
Central Asia during the
Han dynasty and became very popular among Chinese of all walks of life, embraced particularly by commoners, and sponsored by emperors in certain dynasties.
Mahayana (Dacheng, 大乘) is the predominant form of Buddhism practiced in China, where it was largely
Sinicized and later exported to Korea, Japan and Vietnam. Some subsets of Mahayana popular in China include
Pure Land ( Amidism) and
Zen. Buddhism is the largest organized faith in China and the country has the most Buddhist adherents in the world. Many Chinese, however, identify themselves as both Taoist and Buddhist at the same time.
Ancestor worship is a major religious theme shared among all Chinese religions. Traditional Chinese culture, Taoism, Confucianism, and Chinese Buddhism all value
filial piety, or a love and respect for one's parents and ancestors, as one of the most important virtues. Chinese people generally offer prayers and food for their ancestors, light incense and candles, and burn offerings of
Joss paper. These activities are typically conducted at the site of ancestral graves or tombs, at an ancestral temple, or at a household shrine.
Huaisheng Mosque is one of the oldest
in the world, built by 's uncle,
Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas
Islam in China dates to a mission in
651, 18 years after 's death. Muslims came to China for trade, dominating the import/export industry during the . They became influential in government circles, including ,
Lan Yu and
Yeheidie'erding, who designed the Yuan Dynasty's capital,
Khanbaliq.
Nanjing became an important centre of Islamic study. The
waged war and
genocide against Muslims in the
Dungan revolt and
Panthay rebellion.
Judaism in China dates to as early as the 7th or 8th century
CE. In the first half of the 20th century, many
arrived in
during those cities' periods of economic expansion, seeking refuge from . Shanghai was notable for its volume of Jewish refugees, as it was the only port in the world to accept them without an entry visa.
Christianity in China has developed since at least the 7th century AD with the introduction of the
Assyrian Church of the East. Christianity began to make significant inroads in China after the 16th century through
Jesuit and later
Protestant
missionaries. The
Taiping Rebellion was influenced to some degree by Christian teachings, and the
was in part a reaction against Christianity in China.
Dragon boat racing, a popular traditional Chinese sport.
Many historians believe that
originated in China, where a form of the sport may have appeared around 1000 AD. Other popular sports include
martial arts, table tennis, badminton, and more recently, golf. Basketball is now popular among young people in urban centers.
There are also many traditional sports. Chinese
dragon boat racing occurs during the
Duan Wu festival. In
Inner Mongolia, Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing are popular. In , archery and equestrian sports are part of traditional festivals.
Physical fitness is highly regarded. It is common for the elderly to practice
Tai Chi Chuan and
qigong in parks. Board games such as ,
(Weiqi), and
Xiangqi (Chinese chess) are also common and have organized formal competitions. The capital city of the People's Republic of China, Beijing, hosted the , a major international sporting event.
Remains of an ancient Chinese handheld
crossbow, 2nd century BC
Among the technological accomplishments of
were paper (not
papyrus) and
papermaking,
woodblock printing and
movable type
printing, the early
lodestone and needle compass, gunpowder, toilet paper, early
seismological detectors, matches,
pound locks, the double-action
piston pump,
blast furnace and
cast iron, the iron plough, the multi-tube
seed drill, the
suspension bridge, natural gas as fuel, the
differential gear for the
South Pointing Chariot, the hydraulic-powered
armillary sphere, the hydraulic-powered
trip hammer, the mechanical
chain drive, the mechanical
belt drive, the
raised-relief map, the , the
crossbow, the cannon, the rocket, the
multistage rocket, etc.
were among the first to record observations of a . The work of the astronomer
Shen Kuo (1031&95) alone was most impressive, as he theorized that the sun and moon were spherical, corrected the position of the
polestar with his improved sighting tube, discovered the concept of
true north, wrote of planetary motions such as
retrogradation, and compared the orbital paths of the planets to points on the shape of a rotating willow leaf. With evidence for them, he also postulated geological theories for the processes of land formation in
geomorphology and climate change in
paleoclimatology.
Other important astronomers included
Zhang Heng,
Zhang Sixun,
Su Song and
Guo Shoujing.
Chinese mathematics evolved independently of
Greek mathematics and is therefore of great interest in the . The Chinese were also keen on documenting all of their technological achievements, such as in the Tiangong Kaiwu
written by
Song Yingxing ().
China's science and technology had fallen behind that of Europe by the 17th century. Political, social and cultural reasons have been given for this, although recent historians focus more on economic causes, such as the
high level equilibrium trap. Since the 's market reforms, China has become better connected to the global economy and is placing greater emphasis on science and technology.
Wikipedia for Schools is a selection taken from the original English-language Wikipedia by the child sponsorship charity . It was created as a
for use in schools in the developing world and beyond.Sources and authors can be found at www.wikipedia.org. See also our . These articles are available under the . This article was sourced from http://en.wikipedia.org/?oldid= .